History Of The Frame Relay

History Of The Frame Relay Frame Relay is a high-performance WAN protocol that operates at the physical and data link layers of the OSI reference model. Frame Relay originally was designed for use across Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) interfaces. Today, it is used over a variety of other network interfaces as well. Frame Relay is an example of a packet-switched technology. Packet-switched networks enable end stations to dynamically share the network medium and the available bandwidth.  [1]  The following two techniques are used in packet switching technology: Variable length packets Statistical multiplexing Variable-length packets are used for more efficient and flexible data transfers. These packets are switched between the various segments in the network until the destination is reached. Statistical multiplexing techniques control network access in a packet-switched network. The advantage of this technique is that it accommodates more flexibility and more efficient use of bandwidth. Most of todays popular LANs, such as Ethernet and Token Ring, are packet-switched networks. Frame Relay often is described as a streamlined version of X.25, offering fewer of the robust capabilities, such as windowing and retransmission of last data that are offered in X.25. This is because Frame Relay typically operates over WAN facilities that offer more reliable connection services and a higher degree of reliability than the facilities available during the late 1970s and early 1980s that served as the common platforms for X.25 WANs. As mentioned earlier, Frame Relay is strictly a Layer 2 protocol suite, whereas X.25 provides services at Layer 3 (the network layer) as well. This enables Frame Relay to offer higher performance and greater transmission efficiency than X.25, and makes Fram e Relay suitable for current WAN applications, such as LAN interconnection.  [2]   History of Frame Relay Over the last decade, packet switching technology has been dominated by X.25, one of the oldest and most widely used communication transports in the world. Many sources describe frame relay as the next generation of packet switching. Frame relay derives its origins from the ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) specifications developed in the 1980s. The first contributions to the standards communities on the frame relay protocol appeared in late 1984. However, it was not until 1988 that the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Accredited Technical Committee T1 approved the initial frame relay specification. Frame relay services started to become generally available in late 1993.With the rapid evolution of reliable data communications equipment and transmission facilities, frame relay has become more and more popular as the next step in packet technology transport.  [3]   What is X.25 Protocol X.25 is an International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) protocol standard for WAN communications that defines how connections between user devices and network devices are established and maintained. X.25 network devices fall into three general categories: data terminal equipment (DTE), data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE), and packet-switching exchange (PSE). Data terminal equipment devices are end systems that communicate across the X.25 network. DCE devices are communications devices, such as modems and packet switches, which provide the interface between DTE devices and a PSE. PSEs are switches that compose the bulk of the carriers network. They transfer data from one DTE device to another through the X.25 PSN. The figure above illustrates the relationships among the three types of X.25 network devices.  [4]   X.25 versus Frame Relay Frame relay is a telecommunication service designed for cost-efficient data transmission for intermittent traffic between local area networks (LANs) and between end-points in a wide area network (WAN). Frame relay puts data in a variable-size unit called a frame and leaves any necessary error correction (retransmission of data) up to the end-points, which speeds up overall data transmission. Frame relay is provided on fractional T-1 or full T-carrier system carriers. Frame relay complements and provides a mid-range service between ISDN, which offers bandwidth at 128 Kbps, and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), which operates in somewhat similar fashion to frame relay but at speeds from 155.520 Mbps or 622.080 Mbps. Frame relay is based on the older X.25 packet-switching technology which was designed for transmitting analog data such as voice conversations. Unlike X.25 which was designed for analog signals, frame relay is a fast packet technology, which means that the protocol does not attempt to correct errors. When an error is detected in a frame, it is simply dropped. (thrown away). The end points are responsible for detecting and retransmitting dropped frames. (However, the incidence of error in digital networks is extraordinarily small relative to analog networks.) Frame relay is often used to connect local area networks with major backbones as well as on public wide area networks and also in private network environments with leased lines over T-1 lines. It requires a dedicated connection during the transmission period. Its not ideally suited for voice or video transmission, which requires a steady flow of transmissions. However, under certain circumstances, it is used for voice and video t ransmission. Frame relay transmits packets at the data link layer of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model rather than at the Network layer. A frame can incorporate packets from different protocols such as Ethernet and X.25. It is variable in size and can be as large as a thousand bytes or more. Frame relay relies on the customer equipment to perform end to end error correction. Each switch inside a frame relay network just relays the data (frame) to the next switch. X.25, in contrast, performs error correction from switch to switch. The networks of today are sufficiently error free to move the burden of error correction to the end points. Most modern protocols such as SDLC, HDLC, TCP/IP, stat mux protocols do that anyway.  [5]   How Frame Relay Works When looking into frame relay, most people raise the following question: How can one router with a single direct link into a frame relay network establish connection with multiple routers or CPEs? To answer this question, lets first define some terms. The discussion following these definitions will give you a better understanding of how PVCs, DLCIs and LMI function together to enable and manage frame relay links to other routers. PVC Permanent Virtual Circuits are one example of connection-oriented service. Most protocols operate in connection-oriented mode. This makes more efficient use of the circuit by bringing down the link when not in use. DLCI the Data Link Connection Identifier distinguishes separate virtual circuits across each access connection. It allows the frame (packet) to be routed to the correct destination within a frame relay network. This is similar to X.25 implementation of the LAP-D core protocol functions. Frame Relay Packet Format Like other bit-synchronous protocols, frame relay uses a frame or packet structure as the basis for transmission. The frame format used by frame relay is based on Link Access Protocol for ISDN-D channels, which defines the functions for the OSI Data-link layer. (The frame structure for frame relay is derived from the high-level data link control or HDLC procedure.) Frame relay was originally defined by the CCITT as a network service within the framework of ISDN. Because hardware already provided support of ISDN, using the derivative of the LAP-D protocol cuts down on protocol implementation and the need to change hardware. Structure of a frame relay Packet. Explanation of Packet. The fields in the frame relay packet are as follows: The Flag fields delimit where the data frame begins and ends.The Frame Relay Header contains the DLCI, the FECN and BECN bits, and other information (see the Operation section for a description of how the header is used).The Information field holds the actual data being transmitted (the payload). It can hold from 262 to 1600 or more octets (equivalent to a byte). The FCS (Frame Check Sequence) is an error checking field. Frame relay uses a Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC). If Frame Relay detects an error here, it drops the frame. The Network-layer protocol must request a retransmission. The DLCI fields in the frame relay. The fields in the frame relay address header contain the Data Link Connection Identifier, described earlier. These fields can store two octets containing a 10-bit DLCI.The EA (Extended Address) bits make it possible to extend the header field to support DLCI addresses of more than 10 bits. The FECN (Forward Explicit Congestion Notification) bit may be used to notify the user that congestion was experienced in the direction of the frame carrying the FECN indication. The BECN (Backward Explicit Congestion Notification) bit may be used to notify the user that congestion was experienced in the opposite direction of the frame carrying the FECN indication. The C/R field in the header contains Command/Response information. These bits relate to congestion information stored if the network is experiencing congestion because several data sources are contending for the same bandwidth. The DE (Discard Eligibility) bit allows the network to determine which fram es may be discarded under congestion situations. Example of how DLCI addresses are used in sending packets across a frame relay network. When the network becomes congested to the point that it cannot process new data transmissions, it begins to discard frames. These discarded frames are retransmitted, thus causing more congestion. In an effort to prevent this situation, several mechanisms have been developed to notify user devices at the onset of congestion, so that the offered load may be reduced. Two bits in the Frame Relay header are used to signal the user device that congestion is occurring on the line: They are the Forward Explicit Congestion Notification (FECN) bit and the Backward Explicit Congestion Notification (BECN) bit. The FECN is changed to 1 as a frame is sent downstream toward the destination location when congestion occurs during data transmission. In this way, all downstream nodes and the attached user device learn about congestion on the line. The BECN is changed to 1 in a frame traveling back toward the source of data transmission on a path where congestion is occurring. Thus the source node is no tified to slow down transmission until congestion subsided. Frame relay places the responsibility of ensuring data delivery on the end-point devices that are operating with multi-level protocols. End-points can be devices such as networks, workstations, and hosts. To ensure that all packets have been received, the Transport layer (layer 4) of the OSI model places a sequence number on the frames that are sent. As with X.25, this functionality is performed in the Data-link layer. Special management frames, with a unique DLCI address, can be passed between the network and the access device. These frames monitor the status of the link and indicate whether the link is active or inactive. They can also pass information regarding status of the PVC and DLCI changes. This frame relay management protocol is referred to as the Local Management Interface (LMI). Its function is to provide information about PVC status. Originally, the frame relay specification did not provide for this kind of status. Since then, a method for LMI has been developed and has been incorporated into the ANSI and CCITT standards. Advantages of Frame Relay The main advantage of Frame Relay over point-to-point leased lines is cost. Frame Relay can provide performance similar to that of a leased line, but with significantly less cost over long distances. The reason is the customer only has to make a dedicated point-to-point connection to the providers nearest frame switch. From there the data travels over the providers shared network. The price of leased lines generally increases based on distance. So, this short-haul point-to-point connection is significantly less expensive than making a dedicated point-to-point connection over a long distance. The three main areas in which frame relay demonstrates significant advantages over other WAN protocols are: Reduced internetworking costs (in both hardware and carrier tariffs) Increased performance with reduced network complexity Increased interoperability via international standards Increased Performance with Reduced Network Complexity. Frame relay reduces the complexity of the physical network without disrupting higher-level network functions. Frame Relay functions using only the bottom two layers of the OSI model, as compared to X.25 which includes the Network layer. By reducing the amount of processing required, and by efficiently using high-speed digital transmission lines, frame relay can improve performance and response times for most applications. Disadvantages of Frame Relay Although frame relay has many advantages, there are two areas within frame relay that can promote potential problems: congestion control and frame discard. Congestion Control. As with most WAN services, without careful design, a frame relay network can quickly become congested. When frames are being sent beyond the agreed CIR,(Committed Information Rate) there is eligibility for discarding frames due to congestion. Frame Discard. When a problem is experienced with a single frame, frame relay simply ignores the problem and discards the frame. If a large number of problems occur, a significant number of frames are discarded and the end user system must recover from the situation. These errors cause retransmissions, thus placing additional bandwidth demands on the frame relay network. ANSI applied specifications for Congestion Notification Mechanisms to allow frame relay devices to indicate the existence of congestion in the network. In the frame relay packet header, two bits are used for explicit congestion notification: Forward explicit congestion notification (FECN) Backward explicit congestion notification (BECN) When a node on the network approaches a congestion condition caused by a temporary peak in traffic, the node detects the onset of congestion and signals all the downstream nodes. All attached devices learn that congestion has occurred and minimize until the network traffic subsides, as shown in the Figure below. The FECN and BECN bits can be used for congestion control in a frame relay network. In the case of traffic going in one direction (that is, from Florida to California), frame relay standards prohibit the network from generating any frames with the DLCI (Data Link Control Identifier) of a particular virtual circuit causing the traffic. Therefore, the congestion notification must wait for traffic in the reverse direction. Frame Relay Applications The most popular frame relay application provides companies with local area network (LAN) to LAN communication. This allows companies to integrate their information systems in order to have employees throughout the enterprise to access specific information residing on a LAN somewhere in the enterprise. The devices on the LANs can communicate over the frame relay network regardless of their native protocol. For example, native protocols that can traverse frame relay networks include SNA, DECnet, IPX, TCP/IP, and AppleTalk. Therefore, frame relay has the ability to make the users perceive that the entire company is on one large LAN. Application software such as groupware, e-mail, document sharing, database and many other LAN applications can utilize frame relay technology. Companies are also integrating communication for legacy systems, such as SNA, onto frame relay networks (Thyfault, 1995B). This allows companies to connect devices such as cluster controllers and front-end processors directly to FRADs in order to use the frame relay network for communications. Frame relays ability to support both the legacy applications and LAN applications provides an excellent backbone for those companies that are in the process of migrating their information systems from centralized mainframe processing to distributed client/server systems. Companies can turn up legacy applications on the frame relay network and slowly migrate the LAN applications as they are developed. Conclusion Frame relay is a simplified form of packet-mode switching, optimized for transporting todays protocol-oriented data. The result of this simplification is that frame relay offers higher throughput, while still retaining the bandwidth and equipment efficiencies that come from having multiple virtual circuits share a single port and transmission facility. Thus, the use of frame relay can: Reduce the cost of transmission facilities and equipment Provide increased performance, reliability, and application response time Increase interoperability through well-defined international standards A major reason for the high level of interest in frame relay is that it is a technology that has been developed in response to a clear market need. With the proliferation of powerful end-point devices (such as PCS and workstations) operating with intelligent protocols (such a TCP/IP, XNS and DECnet), users are seeking WAN communication methods that offer higher throughput and more cost-effective use of digital transmission lines. With that need in mind, frame relay has been developed and standardized to have precisely the combination of characteristics needed by todays corporate networks. Coupled with the NetWare MultiProtocol Router, frame relay provides customers a flexible, highly manageable solution at a reasonable cost. Frame relay is just one of many WAN alternatives available. Given the right planning, it will provide users with efficient high-bandwidth connectivity now and into the future. Endnotes

Evaluation of Strategic Marketing Models in Fashion Industry Essay

Introduction Fashion essentially involves change, defined as a succession of short term trends or fad and the very nature of fashion, where change is intrinsic, gives different emphasis to marketing activities (Eeasey, 1994). Furthermore, process research, according to Pettigrew (1992), in strategic management is paradigmatically diverse and empirically complex. Therefore, analysis of process model of strategy specific attention should be paid in fashion industry. Since it is significant without any doubt for a fashion company to choose the proper model to complement marketing strategy, evaluation of strategy process model could be essential. This essay attempts to evaluate Johnson & Scholes’ traditional model and Hill & Jones’ model in fashion industry by analysing and comparing these two models via a few cases of fashion companies. By virtue of making a case study of a listed company, Metersbonwe Group, analyzing its strategy it could have an evaluation of Johnson & Scholesâ€℠¢ traditional model while the â€Å"Bravo† of Burberry would illustrate advantages of Hill & Jones’ model despite of certain limitations. Evaluation of Strategic Marketing Models in Fashion Industry Overview of Models ââ€" Exploring Corporate Strategy model (Johnson and Scholes, 1999) The exhibit above indicates the three main processes in a linear sequence: understanding the strategic position; strategic choice; turning strategy into action (Johnson and Scholes, 1999). Johnson and Scholes (1999) pointed that each process is supposed to be regarded as closely associated, and none has priority over another process realistically for these three processes are interrelated and interconnected  in circles. In Exploring Corporate Strategy model, according to the Johnson and Scholes (1999), strategic position means that strategic analysis and understanding of the impact on strategy of the external environment, an organisation’s capability (resources and  competences) and the expectations and influence of stakeholders, which lays the foundation of the future strategies. In the strategy creation and choice part, there are several strategic options available for manager making a reasonable decision to choose congruent methods. Next, the strategy implementation involves the ensuring that chosen strategies are actually put into action. ââ€" Strategic Planning Process model (Hill and Jones, 2004) Evaluation of Strategic Marketing Models in Fashion Industry The figure shows that there are five major processes of the Hill and Jones’ model: selecting the corporate mission and goals; analyzing the organization’s external competitive environment to identify opportunities and threats; analyzing the organization’s internal operating environment to identify the organization’s strengths and weaknesses; Selecting strategies that build on the organization’s strengths and correct its weaknesses in order to take advantage of external opportunities and counter external threats, which should be consistent with the mission and major goals of the organization; implementing the strategies (Hill and Jones, 2004). Analysis of Comparison and Evaluation From the description of the processes of two models, it could be found that there is a difference in process between Johnson and Scholes’ model and Hill and Jones’ model. In this part, evaluation would be concluded by case analysis. In Johnson and Scholes’ model, they prefer to analyses the impact on strategy of the external environment, external elements (resources and competences) and the expectations and influence of stakeholders before  choosing a congruent strategy between several options. Take Metersbonwe Group as an example, the company, which was created by President and Founder, Zhou Chenjian in Wenzhou, Zhejiang, in 1995, is a listed company specialized in casual wear apparel designing, manufacturing and retailing,  playing its role as a leading casualwear apparel company (Shiwei and Hengjing, 2011). It had achieved great success in past several years. To extend their business, Metersbonwe had a new strategy to imitate the fashion model, which was i nitiated by Zara. In the market process, the company made an analysis of it internal and external environment. However, they had an imprecise market prediction of fashion trend, which made the company’s sales not as expected thus increasing company’s inventory in the dynamic market. According to China Scope Financial (2011), as of September 30, 2011, Metersbonwe’s inventory value was CNY 2.98 billion, 83% of its net asset and although Metersbonwe’s cash flow in the third quarter of 2011 became positive for the first time since the third quarter of 2010, the growth of its income and profit has slowed down. One of the main characters of Zara’s fast fashion model is that in the rapid supply chain maintaining low inventories of this model is the basis for profit (Maolijief, 2012). On contrary, the Metersbonwe had committed a fatal error in their process of strategy choice, declining inventory rate and slowing operation time many times. In fashion industry, high inventory each retention day means devaluation (Maolijief, 2012). In addition, on account of the management of the Metersbonwe, the positioning issues were all important for Metersbonwe when it is confronted with the high inventory crisis and decline of their brand image. The external environment offered the threat and ever-growing competition from other brand such as Semir. Its strong Apparel brand and existing consumer group were key advantages for  defending its position. In the dynamic market, especially in the fashion market, which is undergoing a myriad of changes in the twinkling of an eye,  if the company made an inappropriate strategic option and could not change to cope with the unpredictable situation in their process of strategy, they would turn from a success into a failure while proces s of strategy planning is essential. In contrast, in Hill and Jones’ model, analysis of organization’s external competitive environment and the organization’s internal operating environment are followed by a clear mission. The UK fashion brand Burberry will suffice to illustrate this point. Burberry started a new strategy after appointing Rosie Marie Bravo in 1997 as chief executive, which has made Burberry from boom. In the new strategy, Rosie Marie Bravo (CEO) set a mission to reposition the Burberry’s brand by selecting the corporate mission and goals, which could be regarded as the first step of Hill and Jones’ model. Burberry’s goals were to rebuilt Burberry brand image, to keep the traditional consumer base as well as attract a new, more fashion forward client base by regaining control over distribution and taking back the power over design and product development. In the process of analyzing the company’s external competitive environment, Burberry made a decision of opening a flagship store on New Bond Street in London, competing with stores such as Gucci, Versace, Prada and Chanel by placing itself on the level of these luxury fashion brands. Besides, Burberry’s fashion shows in Milan, as other luxury fashion brands usually do, was a congruent approach to draw the fashion media’s attention and to enjoy media  coverage, thus empower itself highly competitive in international fashion market. The next process after selecting the mission was analyzing the internal situation such as their narrow scope of customers and lacking of controlling design and product distribution, then Burberry made a strategy to establish six new brand levels under his direction and incorporated several alternative fashion directions previously ignored thus leading Burberry to attract majority of the potential consumers. With these new brands extending their range varying from traditional menswear to womenswear, children’s apparel, and accessories, Burberry could cope with their weaknesses of narrow scope of customers to achieve their mission. In  addition, Burberry made a plan to renegotiate with these foreign companies that the licenses previously endorsed. In this way, Burberry enabled itself to overcome company’s internal design and distribution disadvantages. In the fourth steps, Burberry took a new strategy in three aspects, according to the company’s mission and analysis of both internal and external situation to turnaround Burberry: plenty of approaches to marketing and rebranding; controlling product design and manufacture; changing distribution policy. After the implementation of the new strategy, Burberry achieved considerable improvement in its financial performance, showing a profit increase of 630 per cent between the years of 2000 and 2003 and constructing itself as a fashion luxury brand. The Burberry case demonstrates the characters and significance of every process in Hill and Jones’ model. Although, Hill and Jones’ model has its limitations as well as merits, just as Katja Kanngiesser (2004) pointed out that traditional strategy process paid much attention on analysis, reason and period of stability and presume that based on their analysis they could make reliable future prediction. Hill and Jones (2004) admitted that valuable strategies often emerge from deep within the organization without previous planning. Furthermore, other researchers hold the opinion that the real world is unpredictable and they doubt the role that lower-level managers could play in the management process (Gavetti, Levinthal, and Rivkin) Conclusion This essay presents two generalizable model of firm strategy in the fashion market and illustrates model with two cases. From the analysis of two kinds of strategy process model in company cases, it could be concluded that Hill and Jones’ model has an advantage over Johnson and Scholes’ model by virtue of analysing of Metersbonwe and Burberry while Johnson and Scholes’ model and Hill and Jones’ model have many similarities in the process of strategy model. Both Johnson and Scholes’ model and Hill and Jones’ model have its limitations as well as merits. Bibliography Andrew, M. Pettigrew. (1992), The Character and Significance of Strategy Process Research. Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 13, Special Issue: Fundamental Themes in Strategy Process Research (Winter, 1992), pp.5-16 Christopher M. Moore, Birtwistle G. (2004), The Burberry business model: creating an international luxury fashion brand, International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, Vol. 32 Issue: 8 pp. 412 – 422 Emerald Group Publishing Limited. (2005),†Bravo† for Burberry: From bust to boom – creating a luxury fashion brand, Strategic Direction, Vol. 21 Issue: 1 pp. 22 – 24 Eeasey, M. (2009) Fashion Marketing, Oxford: Wiley Blackwell G. Gavetti, D. Levinthal, and J. W. Rivkin. (2005), Strategy Making in Novel and Complex Worlds: The Power of Analogy, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 26: pp.691–712. Hill, C. & Jones, G. (2004) Strategic Management Theory, New York: Houghton Mifflin. Johnson G. & Scholes K. (1999) Exploring Corporate Strategy, Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall. Kanngiesser, K (2006) The Strategy Process in Dynamic Markets. Diploma Thesis, European Business School Evaluation of Strategic Marketing Models in Fashion Industry Shiwei X, Hengjing L. (2011), Constructing core competencies of virtual enterprise with information technology a case study of Metersbonwe Fashion & Accessories Co., Ltd. Business Management and Electronic Information (BMEI), 2011 International Conference on 13-15 May 2011, Vol. 1: pp.456–459. China Scope Financial, (2011). Metersbonwe Faces High Inventory Pressure. [online] Available at: http://www.chinascopefinancial.com/news/post/1736.html [Accessed 27 December 2011]. Maolijief, (2012). Metersbonwe brand clothing high inventory problem analysis. [online] Available at: http://mens-clothes-online.tm96.net/20120724/metersbonwe-brand-clothin g-high-inventory-problem-analysis-2.html [Accessed 24 July 2011].

Challenges of Teachers in Decision Making Essay

1.1 STATEMENT OF PURPOSE The purpose of this study is to investigate the extent to which teachers participate in Decision-making at Government Secondary school Omala, Omala L.G.A. argues that purposeful planning depends on effective decision-making. Teachers and educational managers make decisions on a daily basis. These decisions may influence pupils, teachers and the future of the school. Dawn of new Education system has seen a proliferation of Educational policy and legislation specifying and advocating full participation by stakeholders in the governance and management of schools. The education policy documents continuously refer to the democratisation of schools and the education system as a whole. The documents that have made this call, include the National Education Policy Investigation Report, A policy framework for education and training, the White Paper on Education and Training which all culminated in Kogi State Schools that is currently the driving force behind the operation of all schools in Kogi State. The report of task Team on Education Management Development suggested that, in line with similar trends in several other States, has placed Kogi State schools firmly on the road to a school based system of management where schools will increasingly come to manage themselves. The report suggests further that effective self-management must be accompanied by an internal devolution of power within the school and greater participation of all decision-making processes. The work on self-managing schools is strongly influencing later developments that devolution of power to school must be m atched by an empowerment of people within the school. In this research, it has been suggested that the notion of participative approaches, which has become enriched in the â€Å"folklore† of education management, is the most appropriate way to run schools, it has become closely associated with school effectiveness and improvement. 1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM It is important to look closely at the Secondary school education system with the view of determining how decisions are taken at school. Prior to the introduction of Teachers participation in decision making, teachers did not have a say in decisions that affected them in their daily lives. The problem which is the main focus in this research is to determine to what extent the teachers participate in decision-making in secondary schools at Government Secondary School Omala, Omala Local government Area of Kogi State, in order to ensure their satisfaction as well as the achievement of the schools’ goals. 1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY âž ¢ To determine what is the current situation regarding participative decision-making at Government Secondary School Omala, Omala Local government Area of Kogi State. âž ¢ To determine what effect the implementation of current participative decision-making has on secondary schools at Government Secondary School Omala,OmalaLocal government Area of Kogi State âž ¢ To determine how participative decision-making affects teachers’ morale. âž ¢ To determine what changes are desirable to teachers in the management approach. 1.4 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY This study is a focused case study of teacher participation in decision-making at Government Secondary School Omala, Omala Local government Area of Kogi State. 1.5 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS 1.5.1 Decision – making: Decision-making can be seen as the process of consciously choosing the most suitable way of action to solve or handle a particular problem after various alternatives have been considered to achieve the set goals or objectives. 1.5.2 School Management Team: Is a group of teachers who are involved in the task of leading and managing schools Example; Head of Department (HOD), deputy principal and principal. CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION The Decision-making is a continual management function which plays an important part in the management process and which is vital to all the cyclical management functions. Some scholars like Kruger and Van (1996:19) argue that when the principal allows teachers to participate in certain aspects of the management of the school, she/he gives an opportunity to teachers to experience responsibility. By so doing, the principal does not relinquish his/her authority but his/her authority is enhanced. Pretorius (2010) believes that clinical leadership increases a position relationship between principals and teachers. Therefore, teachers become committed to teaching, because they are participating in decisions that affect them. According to Professor Aturata (2008), in the light of trend towards the decentralized school Management in Kogi State, research indicates that teachers need to be empowered to participate fully in decision-making. Also argues that the concept of educator empowerment in decision-making needs to be closely studied in terms of its effect on educator participation in decision-making at school.Professor Soyinka : states that an effective schooling can only occur when both the principal and teachers are involved in the decision-making process. Non-involvement of teachers in decision-making may result in conflict, as there is no consultation between principal and educators on policy matters and operational procedures at school. However probable only one way to democratize schools. To practice democracy means learning to be responsible for freedom, to make long term strategic decisions and most importantly, to accept the fact that democracy is possible when all participants in the educational process share it. Sule Maitama et al. (2009) cite the following from the educational system, â€Å"The government’s effective educational programmes depend on a process of consultation and negotiation among those vitally affected†. So the policies adopted will reflect their values and goals, thus increasing the prospect of wholehearted support. 2.2 DECISION-MAKING Decision-making has never been easy and it is especially challenging for the educational managers of today. The Decisions can be made by the Principal as an individual or in a group where the entire staff or a select group of staff members will be present. The two contexts of decision-making differ significantly. Educational managers should evaluate the nature of the problems and decisions to be made and then decide if participative or group decision-making is called for. Decision-making can be seen as a process of consciously. Choosing the most suitable way of action to solve or handle a particular problem after various alternatives have been considered to achieve the set goals and objectives. This implies that decision-making must be converted into action. The decision-making process involves a series of complex interactions of events. These interactions constitute the following stages, namely: (i) Study the existing situation carefully. (ii) Recognize and define the problem. (iii) Examine the detailed make-up of the problem in the existing situation. (iv) Decide on the criteria for resolving the problem. (v) Develop a plan for action. (vi) Initiate the plan of action. 2.3 MODELS FOR DECISION-MAKING 2.3.1 The classical model: The classical decision theory assumes that decisions should be completely rational. This model employs an optimsing strategy by seeking the best possible alternative to maximize the achievement of goals and objectives. According to the classical model, the decision-making process is a series of sequential steps as follows: (i) A problem is identified. (ii) Goals and objectives are established. (iii) All the possible alternatives are generated. (iv) The consequences of each alternative are considered. (v) All the alternatives are evaluated in terms of the goals and objectives. (vi) The best alternative is selected, that is, the one that maximizes the goals and Objectives. (vii) Finally, the decision is implemented and evaluated. 2.3.2 The administrative model Hoy and Miskel (2006:317) say that this is the strategy of satisficing in an attempt to provide a more accurate description of the way administrators both do and should make organisational decisions. This model rests upon the basic assumption that: The decision-making Process is a cycle of events that includes identification and diagnosis of a difficulty, the reflective development of a plan to alleviate the difficulty, the initiation of the plan, and the appraisal of its success.† This model relies on both experience and theory to guide decision-making. 2.4 PARTICIPATIVE APPROACH TO DECISION-MAKING AT SCHOOL Since participative management has become popular, an increasing number of decisions have been made by groups rather than individuals. In the group decision-making process, decisions are the product of interpersonal decision-making processes and group dynamics. According to Merry Parker people who have been allowed a voice in decisions that affect them are more likely to be accepted and adhere to the decisions and quality of a decision refers to the extent to which the decision is ultimately successful in meeting the goals and objectives of the decision makers. 2.4.1 Collegial model of management:The collegial model includes all those theories which emphasise that power and decision-making should be shared among some or all members of the organization. These approaches range from a restricted collegiality where the leader shares power with a limited number of senior colleagues to a pure collegiality where all members have an equal voice in determining policy. Collegial models assume that Organizations determine policy and make decisions through a process of discussion leading to consensus. Power is shared among some or all members of the organization who are thought to have a mutual understanding about the objectives of the schools. 2.4.2 Application of collegiality in a secondary school situation: The introduction of the collegial model in secondary schools has been slower than in higher education. The tradition of all powerful heads with authority over staff and accountable to external bodies has stifled several attempts to develop participative models on management. The formal position is that heads alone are responsible for the organization and management of schools. This consideration has acted as a brake on some heads that wish to share their power and as a convenient justification for those reluctant to share power. In large schools, there is a need for sub-units like committees in order for staff to have formal representation on decision-making bodies, and there is the assumption that staff has formal representation on such bodies. Research was conducted by different researchers at different schools in Kogi state, where the principal was committed in collegiality and introduced several participative elem ents, Several collegial features were found in the school. Staff had ample formal representation within the decision-making structure and decisions were usually reached by consensus. Despite his good intentions, the principal recognized that the school was not collegial. 2.4.3 Advantages of collegiality There are three main advantages of collegiality: †¢ The evidence that teachers wish to participate more fully in the management of their schools. T †¢ The quality of decision-making is likely to be better when staff participates in the process as it increases the experience and expertise brought in to solve the problem. †¢ Staff participation is important as it usually has the responsibility of implementing any changes. Collegiality does not require confrontation or conforming behaviours, but allows for open discussion and consensus. It employs personal power, not positional power. Positional power is temporally set aside, since the group member communicates and co-operates in the spirit of caring for one another and the vision of the organization. It changes interaction from those that arouse distrust and disrespect to those that are based on mutual trust, support and feeling of personal worth. With collaboration, people do not try to defeat one another and the organisation, but work with colleagues towards success. 2.4.4 Limitations of collegiality: The main limitations of collegiality are: †¢ It is so normative, it hides reality. †¢ Decision-making is slow and cumbersome. Meetings are often lengthy with issues often ending unresolved. Time and patience needs to be invested, and this is usually after hours when staff is tired as noted †¢ There is no guarantee of unanimity of outcomes after participation and debate. It is unrealistic to assume that consensus can be reached as the model undermines the significance of conflict. †¢ Tension that exists between different styles of management, as positional authority often surpasses the authority of expertise in reality. †¢ The accountability of leaders to external bodies or councils often leads to conflict as it is difficult to defend policies that have emerged but do not enjoy the support of the leader, and difficult to establish who is responsible for policy. There is also the possibility of conflict between internal and external bodies. †¢ Staff participation needs to be an adequate level for collegiality to be effective. When staff attitudes are not supportive, it will fail. .†¢ The heads play a vital role and collegiality depends ultimately on them. If they so choose, they can limit the scope of collegiality as diminishing their power, and perhaps ultimately their identity). The quality of management depends on personal and professional qualities of those that lead and manage . 2.4.5 Collegial relationship The building of effective teams is a major responsibility of the other senior staff. Effective teams are necessary for the continued growth, development and day-to-day management of an organization. The School Management Team (SMT) should create the environment where people feel they want to give extra discretionary effort. The school needs to develop a sense of identity. The sense of direction, belonging and identity are central to every team and participants enter a group with many highly developed perspectives and talents. Through collegiality, the team learns how to respect, appreciate and foster the individual identities of group members. Building a collegial group composed of diverse talents and perspectives which require a special sensitivity to each person feel like a value and appreciated contributor. The group should develop a sense of mutual and share responsibility. Team members cannot work towards a desired outcome until they have formed a sense of team spirit and learne d to trust and support one another .The trust is the foundation upon which school effectiveness is built. An effective work culture cannot develop unless trust exists within the organization. Trust allows a rich culture to develop, and allows individuals to achieve their full potential. Trust develops as people expose themselves, share and take risks together. Trust tends to reduce fear of dependency on others and eliminates the potentially negative effects of conflicts. The trust is also fundamental cement that bonds an organization together, facilitating good communication rectifying badly timed actions, making goal attainment possible and creating the conditions for organizational success. Effective collegial relations develop within the organization only when all levels within an organization have opportunities to come together at the beginning of the project. The principal is expected to ensure that a collegial relation prevails within the school. 2.4.6 Collaboration power sharing: According to Dludla (2001: 27), collaborative power arises as staff members learn to make most of their collective capacity to run the day-to-day affairs of their school and solve problems. If teachers are involved in the running of the school, they are challenged in a number of ways, such as learning new ways of doing things and even values and attitudes. Lack of involvement results in fear and uncertainty which induce reluctance to change even if the fruits of change may be somehow desired. Collaborative power is of utmost significance if the school must succeed. He further comments that this form of power is unlimited because it enhances the productivity of the school on behalf of the students. His other view is that whereas top-down leadership may have a role in managing a school, a principal as collaborative leader has to find the right balance between the top-down and bottom-up so that the school meets it challenges. But participation and power sharing does not mean that a scho ol needs to get together every time a decision is made. The main objective in participative decision-making is to reach consensus. Staff needs to be educated in the consensus-based management process. This education will corporate an understanding that each individual cannot unilaterally determine the solution to decisions but can contribute to consensus being reached. It would also need to develop an understanding that shared participation leads to shared responsibility. Principals need to know that the principal who shares power with teachers is still a leader. This principal is a more effective instructional leader because empowered teachers are more likely to maximize their potential. 2.4.7 Teacher empowerment: Good relations are essential for effective change and it is important that relations with teachers, who have the responsibility to implement these changes, Teachers need to have a sense of empowerment and need to be encouraged to participate in the changes. Empowering involves releasing the potential of individuals, allowing them to flourish and grow, to release their capacity for infinite improvement and teacher as a critical factor in student education. The conviction is that developing teachers as classroom instructors and giving them a greater voice in the decisions that affect the school will make teaching more effective. Teachers are empowered in a number of ways, one of which is staff development. Needless to say, for teachers to be successful educators during transformation, they need to undergo some kind of development and training. 2.4.8 Open information system The effectiveness of communication between group and individuals is crucial in this regard and claims that under present day conditions, information has to be shared much more widely. In the context of the school, changes with regard to National and State policy documents, the school procedures, role and resource allocation are all aspects of change that need to be communicated to the necessary constituencies. This may be done through regular meetings, workshops, and rotation of policy documents to members of staff. These are important procedures to enhance open communication system where people can express their feelings freely. By working together in this way, the principles of transparency, accountability and trust are promoted. In collegial group, flexible patterns of communication are used so that all members feel free to participate equally and at will. Minority opinions are encouraged and understood. Individuals know and understand one another, and are sensitive to each other’s ideas and reactions. There is a level of trust and mutual respect that results in members dealing candidly with one another without fear of harmful effects. Resistance to change flourishes where there is poor communication, little or no active participation and involvement in decisions and where tensions are allowed to simmer unchecked. To overcome such resistance, it is necessary that there be open lines of communication participation and involvement of all stakeholders, an atmosphere of facilitation, support, negotiation and agreement. 2.5 WHO SHOULD PARTICIPATE IN DECISION-MAKING AT SCHOOL? According to Van der Bank (2007:150), participative decision-making does not mean that all staff members must participate in all decisions. There are two criteria, which could be used to determine which staff members should participate in which decisions. The first of these criteria is ‘relevancy’ and the second has to do with ‘expertise’. ‘Relevancy’-refers to the interest a specific person has concerning the problem and the subsequent decision. ‘Expertise’-refers to the extent to which participants to decision-making are qualified by means of training and experience. 2.6 STEPS FOR EFFECTIVE PARTICIPATIVE DECISION-MAKING There are nine steps in an effective participative decision-making process which comprised the following: (i) Identify the problem (ii) Clarify the problem (iii) Analyze the cause (iv) Search for alternative solutions (v) Select alternatives (vi) Plan for implementation (vii) Clarify the contract (viii) Develop an action plan (ix) Provide evaluation and accountability 2.7 THEORY ON PARTICIPATIVE DECISION-MAKING According to Nzimande (2001:06), the assumption that individuals have expectations about outcomes that may manifest as a result of what they do, underlies the expectancy theory. This means that individuals are regarded as thinking and reasoning beings that are to participate in future events, so as the teachers at school. This is the anticipation of the greater performance and the greater outcome. This is the strength of an individual’s preference for an outcome. If teachers are motivated through rewards, they may be good participators in decision-making at school. The guidelines on participative decision-making at schools are: †¢ .Participation is more appropriate when the principal does not possess enough information to solve a problem. †¢ Participation of teachers is more appropriate when the nature and dimensions of the problems are not clear. †¢ Participation is more appropriate when decisions are important and relevant to teacher. 2.8 ADVANTAGES OF PARTICIPATIVE DECISION-MAKING AT SCHOOL †¢ Groups provide a larger sum of knowledge than would be accessible to individual members, thus leading to informed decisions. †¢ Participation in decision-making increases the acceptance of decisions, which improves the motivation to implement the decision. †¢ Groups are willing to take greater risks than individuals, which leads to aggressive solutions to problems. 2.9 BENEFITS OF PARTICIPATIVE DECISION-MAKING AT SCHOOL This research has indicated that participative decision-making results in a number of benefits for example: †¢ Increased decision quality †¢ Decision creativity †¢ Decision acceptance †¢ Decision understanding †¢ Decision judgment †¢ Participation results in teacher satisfaction with the profession of teaching. †¢ Teachers prefer principals who involve them in decisions-making. †¢ Teachers neither nor want to be involved in every decision-making; in fact too much involvement can be as detrimental as too little . 2.10 POSSIBLE CONSEQUENCES IF TEACHERS DO NOT PARTICIPATE IN DECISION-MAKING AT SCHOOL There are some problems that teachers face when they not involved in decision-making at school, namely: †¢ Behavior changes †¢ Psychological withdrawal †¢ Influence on mental health for example stress, burnout, etc. CHAPTER THREE: 3.0 EARLIER METHOD OF DECISION MAKING IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS In the olden days, it was deemed necessary to instruct the conquered people in the doctrines of the Homes, and transform them into loyal subjects. They began re-educating the native adults and providing instruction to the children and youth, indoctrinating and educating them in the rudiments of social life to use them to benefit the School. One piece of information that is never controversial in educational discourse is the pattern of initial recruitment into schools in Nigeria. Several studies: Wise (1956); Ikejiani, Hansen, Okeke & Anowi (196†²;), Fafunwa (1979) and Taiwo (1981), for instance, show that in southern Nigerian, often the first pupils in the secondary schools were drawn from groups who were to some extent marginal or subordinate within the traditional status hierarchies. In Northern Nigeria, however there were numerous cases according to Hisket (1975) and Ibrahim (1979) where member of the traditional elite’s were the first to be recruited. The initial scho ols in northern Nigeria for instance were â€Å"Native administration† in the sense that they were supported from local kinds and were very much the concern of the ‘Native Authority’ â€Å"Indeed in northern Nigeria the emirs being the heads of the Native Authori ty bui l t these schools† (Wise 1956, p. 43) Ibrahim (1979) asser ts that in Kano State, the f ragmentary data that exist suggest that the students in governments schools at the initial period of western education in 1903 were disproportionately drawn from high socio-political elite’s of Kano citizens. Even within the immerse growth in educational opportunities that has occurred, it can be observed that the low socio-economic status people in northern Nigeria are still largely under represented within the upper reaches of northern educational system and attempts to increase proportional representation of lower status grouping conceived in terms of traditional criteria of status have been only moderately successful. In gross terms, it is possible to point to variant patterns of response to the introduction of secondary education in the country. Unlike in southern Nigeria, where the most usual result of the introduction of secondary education is a process of status reserved, in northern Nigeria, the process of status reinforcement is assumed to ensure a guaranteed degree of continuity in the recruitment of dominant groups. Of course, concepts derived in terms of this may do injustice to empirical realities since in practice the emergent pattern of social differentiation in the less developed world represents a complex inter-weaving between traditional and emergent concepts of status. This theory may seven further be argued to be largely an academic exercise as the emergence of a modern type of urban centre has largely eroded the traditional criteria of status and authority in Africa. Influence of Commissions and Educational Laws on Secondar y Education The early, schools functioned with scarcely any involvement by the colonial government and as such there were no reasonable attempts to co-ordinate education system organized by the various missions. In this regard, there was no novelty as such in educational practice, all missions owned common allegiance to Christianity and they operated curriculum centered on English, Religion, and Arithmetic commonly called 3Rs. This system however changed in early 1880s particularly by the Education Ordinance of 1882 when colonial government assumed a measure of control of mission education. Significant improvement was made when the Ordinance No. 3 of 1887 was enacted to consolidate and amend the laws relating to the promotion of education in the colony of Lagos. Concerning secondary education, in 1879 there were three secondary schools namely the CMS Grammar school, built in 1859. Wesleyan Boys High School built in 1976 and St. Gregory’s School 1879. The trend of the secondar y school from 1897 to 1992 was a gradual increase in enrolment from 172 to 206. With the amalgamation of Southern and Northern Protectorates. Lord Lugard proposed three types of secondary education with the aim of adapting the needs of education of the children in both protectorates to the man-power needs. The schools are the provincial schools, the rural and the non-government schools. The provinces, and located three to four kilometers away from the residential areas under a British Headmaster. The Resident and the paramount chiefs in the areas where these schools were located were to assist in the supervision of the schools. The entrants were between 12-14 years of age. The rural school were meant for rural children who ultimately would remain in rural environments The rural school policy was not accepted particularly by people in the Southern provinces and a grammar school â€Å"policy was not accepted particularly by people in the Southern provinces and a grammar school policy was favored initially in the main urban areas. CHAPTER FOUR: 4.0 DATA ANALYSIS INTRODUCTION The purpose of this study is to investigate through the perceptions of staff, the extent to which teachers participate in decision-making at Government secondary schools Omala, and as necessary, to make practical recommendations as to whom in the management arrangements of the secondary schools may be modified or enhanced to promote teacher participation in decision-making more effectively. 4.1 Data analysis entails bringing order, structure and meaning to the mass of time consuming, creative and fascinating process. Analysis of data about individual interviews was done through identifying common themes from the respondents’ description of their experiences. Irrelevant information was separated from the relevant information in the interviews. The relevant information was broken into phrases or sentences, which reflect a single, specific thought. The phrases or sentences were further be grouped into categories that reflect various aspects of meanings. The various meanings identified will be used to develop description as seen by the respondents. 4.2 Analysis of quantitative information: The researcher used descriptive statistics to analyse quantitative data. Descriptive statistics is a mathematical technique for organizing, summarising and displaying a set of numerical data. 5.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. This Research serves as a mechanism to identify and evaluate management practices that are consistent with the current call for a participative mode of education management and governance. The research questions form the essentials and the value of this study. The structure of the research provides the reader with what to expect in the ensuing assignment. This research has reviewed about participative management and the transformation role of the principal. The approach described requires an involvement and commitment from staff in order to bring about effective change. Also suggests that a collegial model is difficult to implement even when staff is committed to it. The school management functions remain dominantly in the hands of the principals and School Management Team (SMT). The extent of teacher involvement in management of the school is limited to the classroom. Principals do not motivate staff to be united. Team -work in schools is regarded as poor. Involving teachers in decision- making allows staff and management to work as a team. When teachers are involved in decision-making, they tend to own decisions, by ensuring the implementation of those decisions. A staff perception to the way in which participative management operates currently at Government secondary schools Omola is that teachers are not adequately involved in decision-making in schools. Teachers in this study accept the responsibility of becoming the role players in managerial decision-making. CONCLUSIVELY, The principal should promote an atmosphere of trust by displaying fair treatment and proper management skills to the teachers. It is important for the principal to model attitude behaviour on the principles of democracy. Fair treatment of teachers is a prerequisite for building an atmosphere of trust and accountability. In the climate of transformation, it becomes imperative for a principal to display proper management skills so that his/her credibility as a leader is not brought into disrepute. Recommendations to teachers: †¢ Teachers should take positive steps to become partners in managing their schools Teachers must not be complacent, but be active participants in terms of self – education and managing school affairs beyond the boundaries of the classroom. However, it becomes necessary for teachers to respect the positional power of the principal, which grants him / her authority to make certain decisions unilaterally. This requires involvement and commitment from staff in order to bring about effective change. Assess the principals’ understanding of their role REFERENCES âž ¢ Kogi Education Congress 1994. A Policy Framework for Education and Training Education desk.Omala Town:Omala L.G.A. in promoting teacher participation in decision-making within these schools. âž ¢ Adeyinka, A.A. (1971): The development of grammar school education in the Westernstates of Nigeria 1908 – 1968. Unpublished M.Ed. Dissertation Submitted toUniversity of Ibadan. Ibadan âž ¢ Fafunwa, A. B. (1974): History of education in Nigeria. London. George Allen And Unwin Ltd. Federal Republic of Nigeria (1981). National Policy on Education. Lagos: NERC. âž ¢ Ibrahim, Y.Y. (1979): Oral and socialization process: A socio-folkloric Perspective of initiation from childhood to adulthood Hausa Community. Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis submitted to Bayero University Kano. âž ¢ Ikojani, O. (Ed ): Nigerian education. Bristol; Western Printing Ltd. Taiwo. C.O. (1981): The Nigerian education system. Past Present and Future: France and London: Buller tanner Ltd. âž ¢ Wise, C.W (1956): History of education in British West Africa. Toronto: Longman Green & Co.

Video Games And Aggression A Debate Between...

Feiyang Qian Could Playing Violent Video Games Predict Aggression? A Debate Between Socialization Hypothesis and Selection Hypothesis Bard College Word Count: 1722 Along with the increase of population who play video games, there raised a huge concern about the video games and its possible outcome. One potential issue is the relationship between violent video games and aggression. There are two seemingly competitive hypotheses from previous studies, interpreting the relationship: one is socialization hypothesis which states that the repeated exposure of violent media (i.e., video games) leads to an elevation of aggression over time; another one is selection hypothesis which states that individuals who are more aggressive†¦show more content†¦A longitudinal study by Breuer, et al. on violent video games and aggression pointed out that physical aggressiveness could predict long-term use of violent video games while the reserve relationship is not statistically supported (Breuer et al., 2015). In order to examine the possible long-term effect on aggression induced by playing violent video games, Breuer, et al. designed a one-year longitu dinal study with 276 participants, aged between 14 to 21. Besides possible background factors, Breuer et al. measured physical aggression level instead of aggressive thoughts some previous studies focused on since it was already reported that both socialization and selection hypotheses are more likely to occur if the behavior presented in the game and the one exhibited in real life are similar (Mà ¶ller Krahà ©, 2009). Physical aggressiveness is most commonly featured in violent video games so that it is more likely to test their hypothesis by comparing physical aggression before and after long-term exposure to violent video games. For both the first and second wave one-year later, they measured participants’ physical aggressiveness using Aggression Questionnaire (AQ) (Buss Perry, 1992) and their preference for video games by asking their favorite and currently-played video games which were rated via age rating system Unterhaltungssoftware Selbskongrolle (USK) (see www.us k.de/en) for violence level and their frequency