Major League Baseball free essay sample

Rights development. Before Jackie Robinson integrated the Major League of Baseball, Blacks were isolated and victimized. The principal ball game between two every dark group was hung on September 28, 1860 at Elysian Fields in Hoboken, New Jersey. (Shadowbox-Negro Leagues. Shadowbox-Negro Leagues. N. P. , n. D. Web. 12 June 2013. ) When the common war finished in 1865 dark Baseball crews started to shape in the Northeast. Significant Leagues rejected Black players. Baffled Black players framed groups everywhere. The Black Panthers was the principal proficient dark group shaped 1 885 inBabylon, NY, the group was later renamed Cuban Giants so they could pull in progressively White fans. This prompted the association of the negro group in 1887. In the long run, the association fell in light of the fact that there wasnt enough cash to help the class. There was no prohibition on white groups employing Black players. Blacks kept on playing on White groups regardless of the physical and boisterous attack from players and fans. We will compose a custom exposition test on Significant League Baseball or then again any comparative theme explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page All Blacks realized Baseball was a white keeps an eye on game. (Jackie Robinson Biography. Bio. Com. A Networks Television, n. D. Web. Jejune 2013. ) Jackie Robinson was conceived on January 31, 1919, in Cairo, Georgia. Jackie Robinson.Notable Black American Men. Deed. Jessie C. Smith. Farmington Hills: Gale Research, 1999. 1022-025. Print. ) His folks were Jerry and Millie Robinson. (Jackie Robinson Biography. Bio-com. A Networks Television, n. D. Web. 12 June 2013. ) They lived on a little ranch and functioned as tenant farmers. Jerry left when Jackie was one years of age. Jackie had four kin Matthew Robinson, Frank Robinson, Edgar Robinson , Will Mae Robinson. Later they moved to Pasadena, California since they didnt have any cash. Jackie and his family lived in his stepbrother Mastiffs loft until they found a house.They found a house in a terrible neighborhood. Jackie went to John Mir High School in Pasadena, California. His siblings, Frankie got Jackie inspired by sports. Mack was particularly a decent good example for setting second in the 1 936 summer Olympics. Jackie played games all year including baseball, football ,tennis, and track. He was the headliner of each game he played. Jackie went to Mir Technical High School. He set precedents for baseball and rack. Jackie earned a grant to UCLA. He was the star competitor on baseball, track, football, and b-ball group at UCLA.Jackie needed to leave school before he got a degree as a result of money related issues. He was an athletic executive for the National Youth Administration. (Jackie Robinson Biography. Bio. Com. AE Networks Television, n. D. Web. 12 June 2013. ) Jackie Robinson assumed a significant job in the Civil Rights Movement . An April 15, 1947 Jackie Robinson authoritatively broke the shading obstruction in Major League Baseball. Jackasss participation was an exceptionally positive effect. He not just hit a batting normal of . 342 and took 19 bases in his vocation, yet he was likewise assigned new kid on the block of the year.

Funny Images Conjured up by Web Comments

Amusing Images Conjured up by Web Comments Amusing Images Conjured up by Web Comments Amusing Images Conjured up by Web Comments By Maeve Maddox Some of the time Im more interested than irritated by spelling blunders and inaccurate word decisions that I find in online journals and remarks. Here are a couple. Allow your creative mind to take off! 1. Searching for a PC for my mom she just needs a bear-bones PC. 2. Somebody said this to me one time and I balled my eyes out. 3. his red religious administrators cossack and top. 4. The kid [who had been beaten] had whelps on him. 5. He hears an eviscerated voice. 6. The cowpoke was gathering together the doggies. 7. The outside layer of my advantage is World War I. 1. no frills descriptor meaning fundamental. a PC with just the most fundamental highlights. bear-bones the skeletal structure of a bear (a creature of the family Ursidae). 2. balled shaped into a ball. We can talk about a balled clench hand. Yarn can be balled, as can small amounts of fleece on a sweater. bellowed past tense of holler, to shout out uproariously. The word may originate from an Icelandic word for the sound steers make. Identified with roar. 3. Cossack initially an individual from a Russian military first class; an unmistakable thing of their uniform was a tall hide cap. Metaphorically, a cossack is a dictator figure that utilizes any sort of power to control others. The character Chekov in the first StarTrek arrangement was enamored with calling individuals he didnt like cossacks. A cassock, then again, is an administrative piece of clothing, a long skintight tunic coming to the feet. This is the thing that the cleric most likely had. 4. A whelp is the youthful of a flesh eating creature, for example, a wolf fledgling or doggy. The word called for in this setting is welt. welt: a raised territory, edge, or crease on the body surface (as from scarring or a blow). 5. gut: to take out the entrails of, kill. This is the thing that the word attracted alludes to in the articulation hanged, drawn, and quartered. The word this essayist was going after was immaterial. immaterial in this setting implies that a voice was heard, however its source couldn't be seen. 6. doggies a childs word for hounds. Ex. Take a gander at the Mother Doggy and all the little doggies! dogy (additionally spelled dogey and dogie) a motherless calf in a range crowd. 7. hull the solidified outside of something. It could be a pie outside layer or the earths hull. The speaker most likely planned to state essence. essence a word got from the Latin word for cross. A cross, as we probably am aware, can be an apparatus of torment and execution, however its shape is likewise reminiscent of a focal nexus, similar to a junction. The two thoughts add to the implications of the English word essence: 1 a. an astounding, befuddling, or troublesome issue : an unsolved inquiry b. a determinative point at issue : a critical or basic point requiring goals or settling a result 2. a primary or focal component (starting at a contention or plan) If it's not too much trouble share your own instances of abused words that evoke clever pictures. Need to improve your English quickly a day? Get a membership and begin getting our composing tips and activities day by day! Continue learning! Peruse the Misused Words classification, check our well known posts, or pick a related post below:5 Uses of InfinitivesLatin Plural Endings30 Words for Small Amounts

Mandela Effect Causes and Examples

Mandela Effect Causes and Examples Theories Cognitive Psychology Print The Mandela Effect By Arlin Cuncic Arlin Cuncic, MA, is the author of Therapy in Focus: What to Expect from CBT for Social Anxiety Disorder and 7 Weeks to Reduce Anxiety. Learn about our editorial policy Arlin Cuncic Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on April 23, 2019 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on July 17, 2019  Getty / Images by Fabio More in Theories Cognitive Psychology Behavioral Psychology Developmental Psychology Personality Psychology Social Psychology Biological Psychology Psychosocial Psychology In This Article Table of Contents Expand Origins Examples of the Mandela Effect Explanations Role of the Internet View All Back To Top The Mandela Effect refers to a situation in which a large mass of people believes that an event occurred when it did not. Looking at the origin of the Mandela effect, some famous examples, as well as some potential explanations for this strange confluence of perceptions can help to shed light on this unique phenomenon. Origins The name Mandela Effect began when it was first coined in 2009 by Fiona Broome when she published a website detailing her observance of the phenomenon. Broome was at a conference talking with other people about how she remembered the tragedy of former South African president Nelson Mandelas death in a South African prison in the 1980s. In fact, Nelson Mandela did not die in the 1980s in a prisonâ€"he passed away in 2013. As she began to talk to other people about her memories, she learned that she was not alone. Other people remembered seeing news coverage of his death as well as a speech by his widow. Broome was shocked that such a large mass of people could remember the same identical event in such detail when it never happened. Encouraged by her book publisher, she began a website to discuss what she called the Mandela Effect and other incidents like it. Examples of the Mandela Effect The story of Nelson Mandela is not the only example of this type of false group memory. As the concept of the Mandela Effect grew along with Broomes website, other group false memories began to emerge. Henry VIII Eating a Turkey Leg People had a memory of a painting of Henry VIII eating a turkey leg, though no such painting has ever existed. There have, however, been similar cartoons created. Luke, I Am Your Father If you saw Star Wars: Episode Vâ€"The Empire Strikes Back, you probably remember Darth Vader uttering the famous line, Luke, I am your father. You might be surprised to learn, then, that the line was actually, No, I am your father. Most people have memories of the line being the former rather than the latter. Mirror, Mirror on the Wall If you watched Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, you probably remember the line, Mirror, mirror on the wall, whos the fairest of them all? You may be shocked to learn, then, that the line actually began with the phrase Magic mirror on the wall instead. Oscar Meyer There is some controversy over the spelling of the famous brand of hot dogs, Oscar Mayer weiners. Some people claim to remember the brand being spelled Meyer instead of Mayer (the correct spelling). Location of New Zealand Where is New Zealand in relation to Australia? If you look at a map, you will see that it is southeast of the country. However, there is a community of people who claim to remember New Zealand being Northeast instead of Southeast. Berenstein Bears The famous childrens book series the Berenstain Bears is not immune to the Mandela effect. Many people report remembering the name being the Berenstein Bears (spelled with an e instead of an a). This is similar to the Oscar Mayer issue and hints at perhaps an underlying cognitive reason for the Mandela Effect instead of parallel realities, as some people believe. Shazaam One of the most well-known examples of the Mandela Effect is the collective memory of a movie called Shazaam that starred the actor/comedian Sinbad in the 1990s. In fact, no such movie exists, although there was a childrens movie called Kazaam and some other coincidences that could help to explain how this movie became created (or remembered) in many peoples minds. Explanations Alternate Realities One theory about the basis for the Mandela effect originates from quantum physics and relates to the idea that rather than one timeline of events, it is possible that alternate realities or universes are taking place and mixing with our timeline. In theory, this would result in groups of people having the same memories because the timeline has been altered as we shift between these different realities. You arent alone if you think this sounds a little unrealistic. Unfortunately, the idea of alternate realities is unfalsifiable, meaning that there is no way to truly  disprove that these other universes  don’t  exist. This is why such a far-fetched theory continues to gain traction among the Mandela effect communities. You cant prove its not real, so you cant totally discount the possibility of it. For many people, the excitement of a bit of mystery to everyday life also likely comes into play. False Memories A more likely explanation for the Mandela effect involves false memories. Before we consider what is meant by false memories, lets look at an example of the Mandela effect as it will help us to understand how memory can be faulty (and may lead to the phenomenon that we are describing). Who was Alexander Hamilton? Most Americans learned in school that he was a founding father of the United States of America but that he was not a president. However, when asked about the presidents of the United States, many people mistakenly believe that Hamilton was a president. Why? If we consider a simple neuroscience explanation, the memory for Alexander Hamilton is encoded in an area of the brain where the memories for the presidents of the United States are stored. The  means by which memory traces are stored  is called the engram and the framework in which similar memories are  associated  with each other is called the schema. So when people try to recall Hamilton, this sets off the neurons  in close connection to each other, bringing with it the memory of the presidents. (Though this is an oversimplified explanation, it illustrates the general process.) When memories are recalled, rather than remembered perfectly, they are influenced to the point that they can eventually become incorrect. In this way, memory is unreliable and not infallible. This leads to the likelihood that problems with memory, and not alternate universes, are the explanation for the Mandela effect. In fact, there are a number of subtopics related to memory that may play a role in this phenomenon. Memory-Related Concepts Post-event information: Information that you learn after an event can change your memory of an event. This includes event subtle information and helps to explain why eyewitness testimony can be unreliable. Priming: Priming refers to factors that happen before an event affecting your recall of an event. For example, studies have shown that suggestions made by a researcher can affect participants recall. Priming is also called suggestibility and presupposition. For instance, if you ask how short a person is, this influences peoples answers differently than if you were to ask how tall a person is. If you ask Did you see the black car? instead of Did you see a black car? you are making a suggestion that affects how people respond. In this way, misinformation affects your existing memories. In essence, memories are vulnerable bits of information stored in the brain that can be changed over time. While we assume that our memories are accurate, this is not necessarily the case. Confabulation: Confabulation involves your brain filling in gaps that are missing in your memories to make more sense of them. This isnt lying, but rather remembering details that never happened. Confabulation tends to increase with age. Role of the Internet The role of the internet in influencing the memories of the masses should not be underestimated. Its probably no coincidence that consideration of the Mandela effect has grown in this digital age. The internet is a powerful way to spread information, and with this spreading of information comes the potential for misconceptions and falsehoods to gain traction. People then begin to create communities based around these falsehoods and what was once in the imagination starts to seem factual. In fact, in a recent large study published in Science of over 100,000  news  stories discussed across Twitter that had been contested over a period of 10 years, it was shown that hoaxes and rumors won out over the truth every time by about 70 percent. This wasnt the result of manipulation or bots eitherâ€"real verified accounts of real people were responsible for spreading false information. This notion of the speed with which false information spreads on the internet could help to explain the Mandela effect. As each person chimes in with their own experience or memory of an event, those false memories could affect the memories of other people, thus coloring them to remember the events in the same way. Unpacking the Mandela Effect Now that we have some more information about the underpinnings of the Mandela effect, lets go back and consider one of the examples and see if we can understand how it came about. For instance, Sinbad did star in other movies in the 1990s and appeared in a movie poster for the film Houseguest coming out of a mailbox (this looked similar to a genie, which could explain the association with the movie Shazam). Sinbad also dressed up like a genie for an event that he hosted in the 1990s. When one person mentioned this movie Shazaam (likely on the internet), it altered the memories of other people who tried to recall the movies that Sinbad made from the 1990s. Online communities spread this information until it appeared to be factual. This explanation is supported by evidence that remembering something repeatedly builds your confidence in the memory even if it grows more inaccurate over time. As more and more people provided incorrect details, these become incorporated into other peoples memories as facts and strengthened their conviction that they were correct. A Word From Verywell The Mandela effect continues to be hotly debated, despite reasonable evidence that it is more likely explained in terms of the fallibility of human memory than some form of parallel universes at work. Of course, we dont know everything. As more incidents of the Mandela effect continue to occur, perhaps more research into the origins will shed light on the causes. Take a Deeper Look Into Human Memory

Role of Language and Diversity in the Critical Thinking...

My girlfriend and I have been fortunate enough to vacation several times in Hawaii. The island of Maui is our favorite. The island of Maui holds a special place in my heart, because of the one-on-one time I was able to spend with my girlfriend. We enjoy the breathtaking scenery and the tranquil sunsets. The highlight of our trips has been the helicopter rides. The helicopter is the only way to see some of the islands awesome waterfalls and other secluded places. The ride can be a little hair raising when it is windy. One of Maui’s most visible attractions is Haleakala, the largest dormant volcano in the world. The word Haleakala in the Hawaiian language means the â€Å"House of the Sun.† The top of Haleakala is one of the most outstanding†¦show more content†¦Language helps us make sense of our thoughts. â€Å"Language is the ‘software’ that allows our brain to think the way it does; without language the cerebral cortex lies largely unused† (Kirby Goodpaster, 1999, p. 77). Language must be thought of when trying to communicate. Does the person you are communicating with have the knowledge or have they been exposed to the language so they can understand what you are trying to say? With the many languages in the world, you must be aware that some words do not translate to other languages. When this happens, one must think critically on what other words can be used or other ways to communicate. Using pictures or gestures can help with communicating ideas. How does language empower or limit the expression of our thoughts? At times, everyone becomes speechless. Our thoughts are scrambled and we are unable to express ourselves. At other times, language empowers us to communicate our thoughts and ideas in a way to persuade others to action. The more language we learn about and are exposed to the more we can use it to our advantage. Using our knowledge of language to express ourself more clearly to get a point across. What is the role of critical thinking in persuasion? When persuading someone you must first think of a way to understand how the other person is thinking. Try to see the problem from their point of view. Once you understand their position, then think of a reason for thatShow MoreRelatedRole of Language and Diversity in the Critical Thinking Process702 Words   |  3 Pages Language and language diversity play a significant role in critical thinking and its processes. Language is the main device we use as humans to communicate through symbols what we think, experience or feel. Language is also one of the primary methods of transmitting culture. Language diversity is important to critical thinking because of the close relationship between language and culture. Language is used diversely by different cultures, with what is deemed appropriate in one culture oftenRead MoreBarriers to Critical Thinking1250 Words   |  5 Pagesof Critical Thinking Skills Critical thinking is a rich concept that has been developing throughout the past 2500 years. Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing and evaluating information gathered from observation as a guide to belief and action. Critical thinking skills are important because they enable students â€Å"to deal effectively with social, scientific, and practical problems† (Shakirova, 2007, p. 42). Besides that, critical thinkingRead MoreCourse Schedule of Philosophy 2511695 Words   |  7 PagesPHL 251 Critical Thinking Professor Khristian E. Kay Don’t Panic! Program Council The Academic Program Councils for each college oversee the design and development of all University of Phoenix curricula. Council members include full-time and practitioner faculty members who have extensive experience in this discipline. Teams of full-time and practitioner faculty content experts are assembled under the direction of these Councils to create specific courses withinRead MoreMy Career Goals For Students With Community Outreach Programs1067 Words   |  5 Pagesto encourage others, explore and use interactive activities to demonstrate various ways to experience diversity. Interdisciplinary studies allows me to analyze, educate, and integrate cultural in a diverse communities. This semester I am taking an introduction to interdisciplinary studies, an interpersonal skills in leadership, analytical and information literacy, interdisciplinary critical thinking, and a capstone internship partnership courses, which helps me professionally. My capstone internshipRead MoreOrg anizational Dialogue And Inter Cultural Communication1279 Words   |  6 PagesInter-Cultural Communication Introduction Communication is unquestionably one of the most critical skills to refine. Communicating effectively and clearly in your own environment and comfort zone is challenging enough, and even more critical and challenging in an exponentially different culture. In this age of cultural diversity and Globalization is being able to communicate in the face of cultural diversity plays a more important than ever. Today in this essay I try to elucidate how cross culturalRead MoreThe Cultural Diversity Self Assessment811 Words   |  4 Pagesexisting knowledge and skills. In this paper, I will identify areas of weaknesses and strengths in my cultural competency skills as well as strategies that will improve my transcultural nursing care. I have identified these areas using the Cultural Diversity Self-Assessment. Achieving a total score of 104, this tool has allowed me to target my weaknesses and create a plan to increase my competence in those areas. I have also been able to identify my streng ths in cultural competence. The self-assessmentRead MoreMulticultural Education Should Promote Cultural Consciousness, Empower Intercultural Awareness931 Words   |  4 Pagesenhance cultural consciousness, empower intercultural awareness, teach multiple historical perspectives, promote critical thinking and prevent prejudice and discrimination. On another note, teachers should benefit from multicultural education to help students to develop positive self-image, offer equal educational access and opportunity, encourage critical and multiple modes of thinking. Teachers should also eliminate and stir a way from stereotyping and prejudice in addition to teaching studentsRead MoreEvaluation Of A Bsn Program876 Words   |  4 PagesThis paper will evaluate one BSN and one MSN program outcome from the Grantham University Catalog for appropriate leveling based on Bloom’s Taxonomy Cognitive Domain. An assignment will be created assessing the nursing student’s ability to use critical thinking to meet the outcome expectation in both programs. Grantham’s University mission statement is â€Å"to expand a student’s skills in areas of leadership, community concepts, research and professional practice related to current trends and issuesRead MoreThe Importance Of Communication For A Person s Success1261 Words   |  6 Pagesthat kind of people as normal people. After hearing to them I felt very bad because till that time I was discriminating them in my mind. After I go back to my country I wanted to educate people about this and strive to achieve equality. Cultural diversity is the joint of human societies or cultures in a specific region, or in the world. (The term is also sometimes used to refer to multiculturalism within an organization. There is a general agreement among normal anthropologists that humans firstRead MoreConstructivism and Connectivism as Theories of Learning Essay1554 Words   |  7 Pagescourse or a skill. Computers are used in language learning and teaching ,so many new terms are coined to explain this process. CALL was first introduced on university mainframe computers. It is an acronym of computer assisted language learning It may be defined as the search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning Levy M. (1997). CALL is introduced in programs to assist language learning. There are many types of CALL programs. CALL specific Role of Language and Diversity in the Critical Thinking... Language and language diversity play a significant role in critical thinking and its processes. Language is the main device we use as humans to communicate through symbols what we think, experience or feel. Language is also one of the primary methods of transmitting culture. Language diversity is important to critical thinking because of the close relationship between language and culture. Language is used diversely by different cultures, with what is deemed appropriate in one culture often being thought of as inappropriate in another culture. Culture, then, often shapes language both in its use and in what we view to be normal language. Close reading consists of exploring language in ways that increase critical thinking skills.†¦show more content†¦It does so because when we cannot clearly communicate through language we are apt to be misunderstood by others or express meaning that is other than we desire. Expression of our thoughts is a complex process and language remains central to clear expression. However, there are different forms of language other than words or voice expression. As one instructor asked of her students, How do we pass information along without using voices, letters, or numerals (Language, 2004, p. 11). One answer would be the use of nonverbal language, which is often conveyed through body movements, posture, facial expression and other techniques. Once more, such facets of language are symbolic and differ across diverse cultures. However, when students learn to understand the different and broad meanings of language across cultures even, then they have a better grasp of communicating and receiving communication. All too often, as one educator maintains, When thinking about what language means, younger children often make connections to oral language or the learning of a foreign language (Language, 2004, p. 11). The foundation for solid skills of persuasion rests on critical thinking skills like logic, explication, analysis, assessment, and others. Persuasion is the art of communicating in such a manner that one is able to convince other people to adoptShow MoreRelatedRole of Language and Diversity in the Critical Thinking Process714 Words   |  3 Pagesthe islands awesome waterfalls and other secluded places. The ride can be a little hair raising when it is windy. One of Maui’s most visible attractions is Haleakala, the largest dormant volcano in the world. The word Haleakala in the Hawaiian language means the â€Å"House of the Sun.† The top of Haleakala is one of the most outstanding places to watch a sunrise I have ever experienced. Just remember your jackets; it can be a little nippy at 9,000 feet elevation before sunrise. Visitors can ride aRead MoreBarriers to Critical Thinking1250 Words   |  5 Pagesof Critical Thinking Skills Critical thinking is a rich concept that has been developing throughout the past 2500 years. Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing and evaluating information gathered from observation as a guide to belief and action. Critical thinking skills are important because they enable students â€Å"to deal effectively with social, scientific, and practical problems† (Shakirova, 2007, p. 42). Besides that, critical thinkingRead MoreCourse Schedule of Philosophy 2511695 Words   |  7 PagesPHL 251 Critical Thinking Professor Khristian E. Kay Don’t Panic! Program Council The Academic Program Councils for each college oversee the design and development of all University of Phoenix curricula. Council members include full-time and practitioner faculty members who have extensive experience in this discipline. Teams of full-time and practitioner faculty content experts are assembled under the direction of these Councils to create specific courses withinRead MoreMy Career Goals For Students With Community Outreach Programs1067 Words   |  5 Pagesto encourage others, explore and use interactive activities to demonstrate various ways to experience diversity. Interdisciplinary studies allows me to analyze, educate, and integrate cultural in a diverse communities. This semester I am taking an introduction to interdisciplinary studies, an interpersonal skills in leadership, analytical and information literacy, interdisciplinary critical thinking, and a capstone internship partnership courses, which helps me professionally. My capstone internshipRead MoreOrg anizational Dialogue And Inter Cultural Communication1279 Words   |  6 PagesInter-Cultural Communication Introduction Communication is unquestionably one of the most critical skills to refine. Communicating effectively and clearly in your own environment and comfort zone is challenging enough, and even more critical and challenging in an exponentially different culture. In this age of cultural diversity and Globalization is being able to communicate in the face of cultural diversity plays a more important than ever. Today in this essay I try to elucidate how cross culturalRead MoreThe Cultural Diversity Self Assessment811 Words   |  4 Pagesexisting knowledge and skills. In this paper, I will identify areas of weaknesses and strengths in my cultural competency skills as well as strategies that will improve my transcultural nursing care. I have identified these areas using the Cultural Diversity Self-Assessment. Achieving a total score of 104, this tool has allowed me to target my weaknesses and create a plan to increase my competence in those areas. I have also been able to identify my streng ths in cultural competence. The self-assessmentRead MoreMulticultural Education Should Promote Cultural Consciousness, Empower Intercultural Awareness931 Words   |  4 Pagesenhance cultural consciousness, empower intercultural awareness, teach multiple historical perspectives, promote critical thinking and prevent prejudice and discrimination. On another note, teachers should benefit from multicultural education to help students to develop positive self-image, offer equal educational access and opportunity, encourage critical and multiple modes of thinking. Teachers should also eliminate and stir a way from stereotyping and prejudice in addition to teaching studentsRead MoreEvaluation Of A Bsn Program876 Words   |  4 PagesThis paper will evaluate one BSN and one MSN program outcome from the Grantham University Catalog for appropriate leveling based on Bloom’s Taxonomy Cognitive Domain. An assignment will be created assessing the nursing student’s ability to use critical thinking to meet the outcome expectation in both programs. Grantham’s University mission statement is â€Å"to expand a student’s skills in areas of leadership, community concepts, research and professional practice related to current trends and issuesRead MoreThe Importance Of Communication For A Person s Success1261 Words   |  6 Pagesthat kind of people as normal people. After hearing to them I felt very bad because till that time I was discriminating them in my mind. After I go back to my country I wanted to educate people about this and strive to achieve equality. Cultural diversity is the joint of human societies or cultures in a specific region, or in the world. (The term is also sometimes used to refer to multiculturalism within an organization. There is a general agreement among normal anthropologists that humans firstRead MoreConstructivism and Connectivism as Theories of Learning Essay1554 Words   |  7 Pagescourse or a skill. Computers are used in language learning and teaching ,so many new terms are coined to explain this process. CALL was first introduced on university mainframe computers. It is an acronym of computer assisted language learning It may be defined as the search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning Levy M. (1997). CALL is introduced in programs to assist language learning. There are many types of CALL programs. CALL specific

Wall-E versus Feed on Society - 1223 Words

â€Å"Technological progress has merely provided us with more efficient means for going backwards† (â€Å"Brainy Quotes† 1). While this epitomizes modern time, it also represents M.T. Anderson’s Feed and Pixar’s Wall-E. Feed is a book about a dystopian society influenced by a device, called â€Å"feed†, implanted in the brains of the citizens. The author describes a group of regular teenagers that venture to the moon for a spring break vacation of partying and going â€Å"in mal†. The main character, Titus, falls for a girl named Violet who is not like the other stereotypical teens in this book. Violet received the feed when she was much older and she is homeschooled so her brain is more developed. Together, they go on outrageous adventures until a hacker at a dance club causes them to lose their feeds. Unfortunately for Violet, repairing her feed was practically impossible; meaning, Violet was slowly dying. Together, Titus and Violet questio n society, feed, and the way of life as they create their journey in the book, Feed. In Pixar’s Wall-E, the world has been abandoned by all of humanity because of the over polluted atmosphere. However, one creature still exists on earth, a garbage-collecting robot named Wall-E. One day, a futuristic, well-developed robot arrives on earth inspecting the earth of any species of life. Wall-E falls in love with the robot, Eve, and when she returns home on her spaceship, he hops on and catches a ride to space. There, Eve and Wall-E work together to save theShow MoreRelatedBehind the Beautiful Forevers Analysis1198 Words   |  5 PagesAirport. This â€Å"sumpy plug of slum† had a population of three thousand people living within 335 huts (Boo, 2011, xi). The land owned by the Airport Authority of India and was surrounded by five hotels that Abdul’s younger brother described as â€Å"roses† versus their slum, â€Å"the shit in between† (Boo, 2011, xi). Abdul is a Muslim teenage who buys garbage of the rich and sells it to recyclers to support his family. Abdul’s family, Muslim, is a religious minority in the slum of Hindus; in fact a major elementRead MoreNarcissistic Personality Disorder ( Npd )1612 Words   |  7 Pagesmental disorder where someone has an exaggerated sense of their own presence, a need for constant admiration from others and they also have a lack of empathy for anyone (Mayo Clinic). A couple questions I have include: How does social media effect society? How does social media have an effect on someone diagnosed with NPD, What are ways you can help someone with NPD, and what are some ways we can conclude that someone may have NPD on social networking sites? Social media is what’s hot right now andRead MoreThe Identity And Street Art5052 Words   |  21 PagesIdentity and Street Art Michaila Forte â€Å"An empty wall is an empty population† – Anonymous Abstract Street art emphasizes communal engagement, public activism, and awareness all while being an integrated part of a city. Social media is one of the most important tools to connect people in our lives, especially in today’s youth culture. Our group is interested in investigating the relationship between identity and media. We are approaching this question in three main ways: street art, gentrificationRead MoreFACEBOOK case study Essay11495 Words   |  46 Pagesmaterials. ISBN-10: 1308388098 ISBN-13: 9781308388090 Contents Facebook (in 2013): Will Wall Street Hit the â€Å"Like† Button? 1 iii Credits Facebook (in 2013): Will Wall Street Hit the â€Å"Like† Button?: Strategic Management, Second Edition 1 iv 1 Facebook (in 2013): Will Wall Street Hit the â€Å"Like† Button? Final PDF to printer MHE-FTR-016 007764506 5 FRANK T. ROTH AERMEL SETH TAYLOR Facebook (in 2013): Will Wall Street Hit the â€Å"Like† Button? JANUARY 15, 2013, 10:03 A.M. Mark Zuckerberg, casuallyRead MoreAmerica’s Failing War on Drugs and the Culture of Incarceration2483 Words   |  10 PagesCollege America’s failing War on Drugs and the Culture of Incarceration Richard B. Carpenter Adams State College Abstract For over a century, America has waged a failing war on drugs even as it feeds a cultural apathetic and underground acceptance of drug and alcohol use. The views of the dominate group have placed blame on society’s ills on the evils of rampant drug use throughout the past few hundred years, which have given way to a practiceRead MoreCell Phones And Its Impact On Modern Society2440 Words   |  10 PagesAbstract Throughout the years especially in 2015, society has been very dependent on the utilization of technology. Cellphones immediately come to mind when we speak of technology, as they are advertised everywhere and sold in every place of America, everything around us is powered by some form of technology. Computers have replace newspaper. Cellphones have replaced so many devices that now this gadget has enslaved us, in average we check our cellphones approximately 10-20 times in one hour.Read MoreHero Archetypes and Epic Conventions in the Odyssey and Beowulf3110 Words   |  13 Pagesthe lack of truly terrifying battles in The Odyssey involves the traits of the creatures themselves. Certain creatures, such as Scylla and Charybdis, are not very daunting at all simply because they have no motivation or evil intentions. They simply feed like any typical animal would in the sense that they do it to satisfy hunger, not to cause grief. Circe describes Scylla and Charybdis as following very specific rulesScylla is a six headed beast guaranteed to eat six of Odysseus men, and CharybdisRead MoreCyber-War and Cyber-Terrorism Defined2092 Words   |  8 Pagesinfiltrating one’s personal data or an organizations there will always be a potential threat and cyber criminals seeking to gain the information. Financially speaking cyber-warfare may be the way forward as it is a fraction of the cost to combat with others versus traditional warfare. Relatively recent cyber-crimes related to Cyber-Terrorism? In recent years we have seen an increase in cyber-crimes and the penetration of secret information and numerous organizations data. Some recent, well know attacks areRead MoreEffects Of Globalization On Education During Latin America The Caribbean2787 Words   |  12 Pagesin any given society but amongst these already disadvantaged groups, women and girls are even less likely to receive a good education, if at all. 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Outside Lies Magic Free Essays

There are certain things in life that people take for granted. As technology advances, the people would struggle to go on and fit in the crowd, making sure that everything is played accordingly. Because of these changes, people sometimes oversee things and take for granted the simple pleasures of life. We will write a custom essay sample on Outside Lies Magic or any similar topic only for you Order Now The book, Outside Lies Magic, shows people the simple things found around us that are taken for granted. As I was reading the book, I became open to more possible ideas around me. Although the book may sound like a textbook for many, this is one of the few literary works that people could actually appreciate. From everything that has been included in the book, two scenes stood out the most. The first part was when the author was discussing about wires and power. I became intrigued with the importance of the â€Å"wires† to the history of man and the possible contributions that they may have in society. Even if the history of mankind was quite difficult to explain, the author was able to do it in such a manner that the readers would become curious instead of being discouraged to read. The use of words was also something to be considered. The descriptive manner used would make the readers become interested to know how much information the author wants to share with everyone. Another part of the book that caught my attention was the chapter about mails. I was unaware of the history of the mailing system until I read this chapter. The demands of sending letter across the country and in the whole world increased as time passed by, making it more difficult for the postal services to fulfill their duties. Eventually, numerous people had to sacrifice their time and effort just to allow the mails to arrive on their preferred dates. I learned to appreciate the importance of my mailbox, and how it is accessible to me and to the whole world. However, this service was taken for granted and lacks the much needed appreciation. Thinking about it makes me thankful for all of the hard work taken away from me by such service. I just hope that someday, more people would be able to see and appreciate the little things that evolve around them. The last part was also something that I remembered greatly. Although the book was descriptive, the author was able to share with the readers how the simple things in life would mean the most. The readers are also given the impression that all things should be appreciated and given much importance. Regardless of the use of such descriptive words, the author was able to stick to the realities of life that many people try to escape from. And so, people should become open to committing mistakes, but still hope for the best in life. From everything that has been mentioned, I believe that the strongest part of the book is the first part. Talking about wires is not as easy as it may seem, because it is difficult to talk about wires and make them as interesting as possible. Reading the book allowed me to see a world that I was not aware of before. Taking the wirings for granted was something that people could relate to. I also became intrigued how people were able to organize all of the wires, and how these were identified. This allowed me to appreciate more people and things more, as each word was used. Reading the book came as a challenge for my end. English is not my first language, and some of the words used in the book were difficult for me to understand. However, the magic of words allowed me to explore and expand my knowledge further. For this, I was able to experience the magic of books, at the same time learn about the realities of life hidden from most people. Sometimes, it is not bad to look back and appreciate the humble beginnings of people and things. These are the essential things that would make the existence more worthy of the people’s appreciation. This is one of the few books that I would recommend for others to read. How to cite Outside Lies Magic, Papers

Diversity in Workplace Sonic Telecommunication Services

Question: Discuss about the Diversity in Workplace for Sonic Telecommunication Services. Answer: Introduction: The aim of the paper is to evaluate the various issues that have been found at Sonic Telecommunication Services. The major issue is related to the diversity in the workplace. These types of issues have been evident in many organizations. It is on the basis of the evaluation a number of suggestions will be made. Analysis of the case study: The case study on Sonic Telecommunication has highlighted a number of factors that have hindered the diversity in the workplace. Kim Wang faces major difficulties in terms of workplace diversity because of being Asian origin. Being the oldest employee in the organization, she never gets better opportunities to show her capability. She is addressed only when there is any work related to Asian culture. She also feels that she has been treated unequal when compared with other working employees like Matthew. These situations clearly suggest that the Organization does not support a diversified culture, here Asian, and are more prone towards their own culture. By analyzing the diversity policies of Westpac Group and the Woolworths, it has been evident that in a diverse workplace situation, innovative ideas can be used for the development of the organization. In the era of globalization, presence of a global leader is indeed important that can only be possible when the workplace diversity is encouraged in the workplace (Hughes 2014). In case of Westpac it has been evident that their workplace strategy irrespective of cultural diversity, age or gender has helped to deliver best customer experience and has strongly improved the stakeholder relationship as well. Importance of workplace diversity: Workplace diversity promotes equal employment opportunity: As commented by Sridhar and Sandeep (2014), workplace diversity is indeed important to improve the economic performance of an organization. In the recent market situation, in order to combat against the intense competition, it is important to understand the demand of the people and it can be easily achieved in there remains a diversity in the workplace. Workplace diversity reflects the diversity of customers as well as stakeholders: Major multinational companies are benefitted when the stakeholders and the customers find that there exists diversity in the workplace. The particular organization gets recognized easily become more acceptable to the said group of people. Kim has been facing racism in the Workplace because of her origin from Asia. In order to minimize these problems, it is recommended that: To frame an organizational diversity policy where the diversity of the employees will be addressed. It is important to respect the diversity of people. In case of Kim, it has to be understood that she has an experience of more than 10 years that can be utilize for the sake of improving the organizational operation. Opportunity should be given based on merit rather than personal preference (Mutuku et al. 2013). In some situations, where Kim could perform better, it is recommended to use her talent and not others. There should be a team of HR management, who would be responsible for hearing any issue of the employee and address the same as early as possible. To achieve the objectives and the goals of the organization towards creation of workplace diversity, it is important to form a committee who would take care of the diversity in the workplace. In order to review the monitoring process at a regular basis, the following steps can be suggested: To monitor the process, it is recommended to keep a note of the activities or issues faced by any employee in the workplace (Cox and Blake 2013). There should be the presence of a committee where a victim can easily reach out and speak out any kind of issue faced by the person. It is also recommended to carry out a feedback survey from the existing employees to gain an understanding of the present situation. Implementation of consultation: As stated by Henderson (2014), many organizations take help of other consultancies to keep a note of the basic understanding and implementation of strategies in the workplace. That consultancy will be responsible to take care of the diversity in the Workplace that would automatically help to improve the work activity of the organization. Reading Richard et al. (2014), it has been evident that workplace diversity can be promoted by creating a specific organizational culture. Therefore, a change management or improving the culture of the workplace that would focus more on the importance of diversity will help to improve the activities of the organization. In order to gain a regular review if the diversity integration it is recommended that proper awareness should be spread in the organization and the employees as well as the leaders of the organization should focus on the diverse culture. The leaders should never be biased towards any decision and each employee should be treated equally irrespective of any kind of diversity. Improvement measurements to diversity integration: Equal opportunities should be given to people irrespective of any distinction Leadership approach should be equal towards everyone The organization should introduce motivational factors to motivate employees (Fine eta l. 2013) The HR team should be active enough to hear peoples grievances and suggestions A diverse organizational culture should be followed. Conclusion: The above analysis made on creating diversity in the organization has helped to gain huge knowledge and understanding on the importance of diversity in an organization. It has been evident that Sonic Telecommunication has been facing a number of issues and thus, a number of recommendations have been made to overcome these issues. References: Cox, T.H. and Blake, S., 2013. Managing cultural diversity: Implications for organizational competitiveness.The Executive, pp.45-56. Fine, M.G., Johnson, F.L. and Ryan, M.S.,2013. Cultural diversity in the workplace.Public Personnel Management,19(3), pp.305-320. Henderson, G., 2014.Cultural diversity in the workplace: Issues and strategies. Praeger Publishers. Hughes, C., 2014. Integrating diversity into organization and career development: A changing perspective.Impact of Diversity on Organization and Career Development, p.1. Mutuku, C., Musyoka, M., Awino, Z.B. and KObonyo, P., 2013. Top Management Team Diversity, Involvement Culture Performance of Commercial Banks in Kenya. Richard, O.C., Barnett, T., Dwyer, S. and Chadwick, K., 2014. Cultural diversity in management, firm performance, and the moderating role of entrepreneurial orientation dimensions.Academy of management journal,47(2), pp.255-266. Sridhar, K.V. and Sandeep, V., 2014. IMPACT OF DIVERSITY AT WORK PLACE.Asia Pacific Journal of Research Vol: I Issue XII.

Symbolism Analysis A Very Old Man with Enormous Wings Essay Example

Symbolism Analysis: A Very Old Man with Enormous Wings Paper Gabriel Garcia Marquez’ short story tells us of a peculiar story of an old man appearing in the yard of a couple. The couple happened to have a sick child, and the old man happened to posses wings. This is where the story revolves: the couple’s fear that the old man might be an angel who’s going to take their child. Because of this, he was placed in a chicken coop, and was the center of attraction of the whole town. The couple decides to make a living out of the old man by charging an entrance fee for those who wish to see the other-worldly attraction. When another â€Å"unique† person shows up, the crowd loses interest with the winged man and the couple goes back to their peaceful life. With all the money they collected, they built a big house and have a good business in town. After some time, the angel was able to grow his wings back and flew away (Roberts Jacobs, 2006). Gabriel Garcia Marquez uses symbolism to give a deeper meaning to the short story. Here, the most evident symbolism is that of the old man with wings who is perceived to be an angel. He symbolizes the unknown or the unfamiliar, which happens to appear in a civilized community. In this story, the angel is not treated as someone or something from the heavens, but instead, treated as an outsider or a freak that is different from anyone in the society. The angel could also be a symbol of the people’s faith in what they believe. They were close minded in their idea of how an angel should be, so despite the enormous wings that the old man posses, it was not enough proof for the people to believe that he was indeed an angel. We will write a custom essay sample on Symbolism Analysis: A Very Old Man with Enormous Wings specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Symbolism Analysis: A Very Old Man with Enormous Wings specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Symbolism Analysis: A Very Old Man with Enormous Wings specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Another symbolism shown in the short story was the chicken coop where the couple kept the old man, in their fear that he is going to take away their child. The chicken coop symbolized the boxed belief of the people in the society. People from different places came to the community to know if the speculation about the old man being an angel was really true. They plucked and prodded at the old man to test whether he is what they think he is. They even tried to feed him mothballs because of the belief that it’s what angels eat. However, when the old man didn’t meet their expectations, they treated him as some freak of nature, a carnival attraction of a man who happened to posses enormous wings. This just showed how the people in the community boxed their ideas into what they believed. Instead of treating him as an angel, he was treated as some kind of wild animal or a freak of nature. Another symbolism in the short story was the introduction of another freak of nature, the woman who was turned into a spider. This symbolizes the people’s faith, and how it was easily swayed when another â€Å"unique† creature came into the community. The people finally ignored the existence of the winged old man, and shifted their attention towards the woman-spider who eats mothballs. This characterizes the weak faith of the people, and that they are ones who choose what to believe. When the old man with wings doesn’t seem to respond to their questions or give them the miracle they wanted, they turn their attention towards other things, which in the story, is the woman-spider. In Gabriel Garcia Marquez’ short story â€Å"A Very Old Man with Enormous Wings,† we can see how the important things or important facts of life usually elude the weak believers. Instead of grasping the reality, they often turn to the supernatural and the magical. The truth is already in front of them: an old man with enormous wings; yet they chose to believe the story of a woman who was magically turned into a spider. Instead of the truth, they chose the supernatural. Reference: Roberts, E. V. , Jacobs, H. E. (2006). Literature: An Introduction to Reading and Writing (8th Edition ed. ): Prentice Hall.

UK Inflation essays

UK Inflation essays Macroeconomics History, causes and costs of Inflation in the UK economy Before starting to explain inflation it is necessary first to define it. Inflation can be described as a positive rate of growth in the general price level of goods and services. It is measured as a percentage increase over time in a price index such as the GDP deflator or the Retail Price Index. The RPI is a basket of over six hundred different goods and services, weighted according to the percentage of how much household income they take up. There are two measurements of this: the headline rate (includes all the items in the basket) and the underlying rate (RPIX) which excludes mortgage interest payments. It is the RPIX which is used more often in this country, as a feature of the UK when compared to the rest of Europe is a very high proportion of owner/occupier homeowners. This means that many people have mortgages, and as such, changes in interest rates (to control inflation) can artificially raise the headl ine rate. Causes of Inflation There are two main causes of inflation, 1) Demand Pull Inflation This is where the total demand for goods and services in the economy exceeds the total supply. This happens after excessive growth in aggregate demand, and creates an inflationary gap. Excess demand in the economy drives up prices, and high prices mean that Suppliers want to produce more units of their product in order to make more money. To supply more, they must increase their production capacity, and the easiest way to do this in the short run is to increase the amount of labour they employ. This means that they are paying more wages, so people will have more disposable income, and hence there is more demand in the economy. Demand pull inflation is often monetary in origin: when the money supply grows faster than the ability of the economy to supply goods and services. This concept is explained by the Quantity Theory of Money. The quantity theory of money hold...

Law for Business BREF 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Law for Business BREF 1 - Essay Example This is because at the time of the sale, the toys were not yet in a deliverable state and Megastores’ duty to prepare it for delivery was not yet discharged. The conclusion is that Megastores should shoulder the responsibility for the damage to the two toys whilst Toys4U should be free from such responsibility. The parties involved here are Megastores and Toys4U, the seller and the buyer, respectively. The subject of the contract of sale is a Polaris missile toy, ten units of them. Megastores contended that Toys4U was liable for the damage of two of the toys because ownership had already passed to the latter at the time the damage occurred. The issue here is whether or not ownership had already passed to Toys4U at the time of the damage. Toys4U is not liable for the damage of the two Polaris missiles toys because it occurred before ownership passed from Megastores to Toys4U. This is supported by the provisions of the Sale of Goods Act 1979 (SoGA) and pertinent case law previously decided by the courts. The applicable statute here is the Sale of Goods Act 1979 (SoGA hereafter), which received Royal Assent on December 6, 1979 and took effect commencing January 1, 1980. The SoGA governs transactions of sale of goods within the jurisdiction of the United Kingdom. Specific provisions of said law applicable here are: s 2(1), which defines a contract of sale; s 17 (1) and (2), which provide for the exact time specific or ascertained goods are deemed transferred from seller to buyer; s 18 Rule 2, which provides for the exact time property passes from seller to buyer when seller is first required to put goods in a deliverable state, and; s 20 (1), which allocates risk liability to parties. Section 20 (1) of the SoGA 1979 provides that the property subject of the sale remains at the risk of the seller until transferred to the buyer. This means that Megastores should shoulder damage sustained by the toys unless ownership was explicitly or implicitly

Preventing a brave New World WK5 assignment Essay

Preventing a brave New World WK5 assignment - Essay Example He argues that whatever scientists call ‘therapeutic cloning’, is the use of embryos as a font of tissues (Kass, 2001, p. 327). He also offers some reasons against cloning which covers both reproductive and therapeutic cloning. In his arguments against cloning, Kass advocates for ethical practice in biomedical projects. His views however, may face some challenges. In this essay, the discussion will cover Kass’ reasons for advocating for a ban on human cloning, and the strengths and weaknesses of his argument. Kass’ Reasons against Human Cloning Kass has four reasons against human cloning. That the process of cloning humans is unethical, because the child to-be is used in an experiment that subjects him or her to risks of developmental and bodily abnormalities. That cloning threatens individuality and confuses identity. The clone is made from a genotype that has already lived. This denies the cloned individual his or her individuality. The process of cloning results in an individual that could be a twin to the person he/she should refer to as a mother or a father. It means the clone’s relation to the parent is confused. That cloning is a way of turning procreation into manufacture, and that it is a major form of child abuse and parental tyranny (Kass, 2001, p. 324-328). Strengths of the Argument Evidence shows that cloning is very risky and expensive. According to Sharma (2007), cloning is inefficient and 90% of attempts fail. Cloned animals have been found to have high rate infection, carcinoma, low immunity levels and some disorders. Even Dolly sheep suffered some abnormalities when it was five years old (Gupta, 2004, p. 256). Evidence also shows that cloned animals’ genomes are compromised and some of them behave abnormally. They also suffer from congenital abnormalities due to programming errors. Some cloned animals die young (Sharma, 2007, p. 167). The concept of cloning supports the argument on identity and individu ality. The process involves removal or deactivation of a nucleus from an unfertilized egg and introduction of a somatic cell nucleus from a selected adult (Levine, 2009, p. 9). This means that the cloned individual will not have the natural genetic distinctiveness and independence. Procreation has indeed been turned into a manufacturing process. Levine indicates that cloning technology already has commercial uses with many private companies and academic scientists owning various patents. These patents cover various elements of derivation of human embryonic stem cells, and nuclear transfer technique (Levine, 2009, p. 144). Weaknesses of the Argument Different people have different views on what is wrong or right. Arguments against cloning, therefore, that procreation has been turned into a manufacturing process, that cloning leads to the production of abnormal babies, and that the cloned individual may lack identity and individuality; may all not be considered unethical by some peopl e. Some may argue that malformed, unhealthy and abnormal children are born every year due to various factors. Some may argue that Kass’ arguments do not consider the goodness of well-being. Some may argue that considering the advantages of well-being over disadvantages could be more appropriate (The President's Council on Bioethics, 2002). Conclusion Cloning should be banned based on the reasons given by Kass. Apart from

History Of The Frame Relay

History Of The Frame Relay Frame Relay is a high-performance WAN protocol that operates at the physical and data link layers of the OSI reference model. Frame Relay originally was designed for use across Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) interfaces. Today, it is used over a variety of other network interfaces as well. Frame Relay is an example of a packet-switched technology. Packet-switched networks enable end stations to dynamically share the network medium and the available bandwidth.  [1]  The following two techniques are used in packet switching technology: Variable length packets Statistical multiplexing Variable-length packets are used for more efficient and flexible data transfers. These packets are switched between the various segments in the network until the destination is reached. Statistical multiplexing techniques control network access in a packet-switched network. The advantage of this technique is that it accommodates more flexibility and more efficient use of bandwidth. Most of todays popular LANs, such as Ethernet and Token Ring, are packet-switched networks. Frame Relay often is described as a streamlined version of X.25, offering fewer of the robust capabilities, such as windowing and retransmission of last data that are offered in X.25. This is because Frame Relay typically operates over WAN facilities that offer more reliable connection services and a higher degree of reliability than the facilities available during the late 1970s and early 1980s that served as the common platforms for X.25 WANs. As mentioned earlier, Frame Relay is strictly a Layer 2 protocol suite, whereas X.25 provides services at Layer 3 (the network layer) as well. This enables Frame Relay to offer higher performance and greater transmission efficiency than X.25, and makes Fram e Relay suitable for current WAN applications, such as LAN interconnection.  [2]   History of Frame Relay Over the last decade, packet switching technology has been dominated by X.25, one of the oldest and most widely used communication transports in the world. Many sources describe frame relay as the next generation of packet switching. Frame relay derives its origins from the ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) specifications developed in the 1980s. The first contributions to the standards communities on the frame relay protocol appeared in late 1984. However, it was not until 1988 that the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Accredited Technical Committee T1 approved the initial frame relay specification. Frame relay services started to become generally available in late 1993.With the rapid evolution of reliable data communications equipment and transmission facilities, frame relay has become more and more popular as the next step in packet technology transport.  [3]   What is X.25 Protocol X.25 is an International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) protocol standard for WAN communications that defines how connections between user devices and network devices are established and maintained. X.25 network devices fall into three general categories: data terminal equipment (DTE), data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE), and packet-switching exchange (PSE). Data terminal equipment devices are end systems that communicate across the X.25 network. DCE devices are communications devices, such as modems and packet switches, which provide the interface between DTE devices and a PSE. PSEs are switches that compose the bulk of the carriers network. They transfer data from one DTE device to another through the X.25 PSN. The figure above illustrates the relationships among the three types of X.25 network devices.  [4]   X.25 versus Frame Relay Frame relay is a telecommunication service designed for cost-efficient data transmission for intermittent traffic between local area networks (LANs) and between end-points in a wide area network (WAN). Frame relay puts data in a variable-size unit called a frame and leaves any necessary error correction (retransmission of data) up to the end-points, which speeds up overall data transmission. Frame relay is provided on fractional T-1 or full T-carrier system carriers. Frame relay complements and provides a mid-range service between ISDN, which offers bandwidth at 128 Kbps, and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), which operates in somewhat similar fashion to frame relay but at speeds from 155.520 Mbps or 622.080 Mbps. Frame relay is based on the older X.25 packet-switching technology which was designed for transmitting analog data such as voice conversations. Unlike X.25 which was designed for analog signals, frame relay is a fast packet technology, which means that the protocol does not attempt to correct errors. When an error is detected in a frame, it is simply dropped. (thrown away). The end points are responsible for detecting and retransmitting dropped frames. (However, the incidence of error in digital networks is extraordinarily small relative to analog networks.) Frame relay is often used to connect local area networks with major backbones as well as on public wide area networks and also in private network environments with leased lines over T-1 lines. It requires a dedicated connection during the transmission period. Its not ideally suited for voice or video transmission, which requires a steady flow of transmissions. However, under certain circumstances, it is used for voice and video t ransmission. Frame relay transmits packets at the data link layer of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model rather than at the Network layer. A frame can incorporate packets from different protocols such as Ethernet and X.25. It is variable in size and can be as large as a thousand bytes or more. Frame relay relies on the customer equipment to perform end to end error correction. Each switch inside a frame relay network just relays the data (frame) to the next switch. X.25, in contrast, performs error correction from switch to switch. The networks of today are sufficiently error free to move the burden of error correction to the end points. Most modern protocols such as SDLC, HDLC, TCP/IP, stat mux protocols do that anyway.  [5]   How Frame Relay Works When looking into frame relay, most people raise the following question: How can one router with a single direct link into a frame relay network establish connection with multiple routers or CPEs? To answer this question, lets first define some terms. The discussion following these definitions will give you a better understanding of how PVCs, DLCIs and LMI function together to enable and manage frame relay links to other routers. PVC Permanent Virtual Circuits are one example of connection-oriented service. Most protocols operate in connection-oriented mode. This makes more efficient use of the circuit by bringing down the link when not in use. DLCI the Data Link Connection Identifier distinguishes separate virtual circuits across each access connection. It allows the frame (packet) to be routed to the correct destination within a frame relay network. This is similar to X.25 implementation of the LAP-D core protocol functions. Frame Relay Packet Format Like other bit-synchronous protocols, frame relay uses a frame or packet structure as the basis for transmission. The frame format used by frame relay is based on Link Access Protocol for ISDN-D channels, which defines the functions for the OSI Data-link layer. (The frame structure for frame relay is derived from the high-level data link control or HDLC procedure.) Frame relay was originally defined by the CCITT as a network service within the framework of ISDN. Because hardware already provided support of ISDN, using the derivative of the LAP-D protocol cuts down on protocol implementation and the need to change hardware. Structure of a frame relay Packet. Explanation of Packet. The fields in the frame relay packet are as follows: The Flag fields delimit where the data frame begins and ends.The Frame Relay Header contains the DLCI, the FECN and BECN bits, and other information (see the Operation section for a description of how the header is used).The Information field holds the actual data being transmitted (the payload). It can hold from 262 to 1600 or more octets (equivalent to a byte). The FCS (Frame Check Sequence) is an error checking field. Frame relay uses a Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC). If Frame Relay detects an error here, it drops the frame. The Network-layer protocol must request a retransmission. The DLCI fields in the frame relay. The fields in the frame relay address header contain the Data Link Connection Identifier, described earlier. These fields can store two octets containing a 10-bit DLCI.The EA (Extended Address) bits make it possible to extend the header field to support DLCI addresses of more than 10 bits. The FECN (Forward Explicit Congestion Notification) bit may be used to notify the user that congestion was experienced in the direction of the frame carrying the FECN indication. The BECN (Backward Explicit Congestion Notification) bit may be used to notify the user that congestion was experienced in the opposite direction of the frame carrying the FECN indication. The C/R field in the header contains Command/Response information. These bits relate to congestion information stored if the network is experiencing congestion because several data sources are contending for the same bandwidth. The DE (Discard Eligibility) bit allows the network to determine which fram es may be discarded under congestion situations. Example of how DLCI addresses are used in sending packets across a frame relay network. When the network becomes congested to the point that it cannot process new data transmissions, it begins to discard frames. These discarded frames are retransmitted, thus causing more congestion. In an effort to prevent this situation, several mechanisms have been developed to notify user devices at the onset of congestion, so that the offered load may be reduced. Two bits in the Frame Relay header are used to signal the user device that congestion is occurring on the line: They are the Forward Explicit Congestion Notification (FECN) bit and the Backward Explicit Congestion Notification (BECN) bit. The FECN is changed to 1 as a frame is sent downstream toward the destination location when congestion occurs during data transmission. In this way, all downstream nodes and the attached user device learn about congestion on the line. The BECN is changed to 1 in a frame traveling back toward the source of data transmission on a path where congestion is occurring. Thus the source node is no tified to slow down transmission until congestion subsided. Frame relay places the responsibility of ensuring data delivery on the end-point devices that are operating with multi-level protocols. End-points can be devices such as networks, workstations, and hosts. To ensure that all packets have been received, the Transport layer (layer 4) of the OSI model places a sequence number on the frames that are sent. As with X.25, this functionality is performed in the Data-link layer. Special management frames, with a unique DLCI address, can be passed between the network and the access device. These frames monitor the status of the link and indicate whether the link is active or inactive. They can also pass information regarding status of the PVC and DLCI changes. This frame relay management protocol is referred to as the Local Management Interface (LMI). Its function is to provide information about PVC status. Originally, the frame relay specification did not provide for this kind of status. Since then, a method for LMI has been developed and has been incorporated into the ANSI and CCITT standards. Advantages of Frame Relay The main advantage of Frame Relay over point-to-point leased lines is cost. Frame Relay can provide performance similar to that of a leased line, but with significantly less cost over long distances. The reason is the customer only has to make a dedicated point-to-point connection to the providers nearest frame switch. From there the data travels over the providers shared network. The price of leased lines generally increases based on distance. So, this short-haul point-to-point connection is significantly less expensive than making a dedicated point-to-point connection over a long distance. The three main areas in which frame relay demonstrates significant advantages over other WAN protocols are: Reduced internetworking costs (in both hardware and carrier tariffs) Increased performance with reduced network complexity Increased interoperability via international standards Increased Performance with Reduced Network Complexity. Frame relay reduces the complexity of the physical network without disrupting higher-level network functions. Frame Relay functions using only the bottom two layers of the OSI model, as compared to X.25 which includes the Network layer. By reducing the amount of processing required, and by efficiently using high-speed digital transmission lines, frame relay can improve performance and response times for most applications. Disadvantages of Frame Relay Although frame relay has many advantages, there are two areas within frame relay that can promote potential problems: congestion control and frame discard. Congestion Control. As with most WAN services, without careful design, a frame relay network can quickly become congested. When frames are being sent beyond the agreed CIR,(Committed Information Rate) there is eligibility for discarding frames due to congestion. Frame Discard. When a problem is experienced with a single frame, frame relay simply ignores the problem and discards the frame. If a large number of problems occur, a significant number of frames are discarded and the end user system must recover from the situation. These errors cause retransmissions, thus placing additional bandwidth demands on the frame relay network. ANSI applied specifications for Congestion Notification Mechanisms to allow frame relay devices to indicate the existence of congestion in the network. In the frame relay packet header, two bits are used for explicit congestion notification: Forward explicit congestion notification (FECN) Backward explicit congestion notification (BECN) When a node on the network approaches a congestion condition caused by a temporary peak in traffic, the node detects the onset of congestion and signals all the downstream nodes. All attached devices learn that congestion has occurred and minimize until the network traffic subsides, as shown in the Figure below. The FECN and BECN bits can be used for congestion control in a frame relay network. In the case of traffic going in one direction (that is, from Florida to California), frame relay standards prohibit the network from generating any frames with the DLCI (Data Link Control Identifier) of a particular virtual circuit causing the traffic. Therefore, the congestion notification must wait for traffic in the reverse direction. Frame Relay Applications The most popular frame relay application provides companies with local area network (LAN) to LAN communication. This allows companies to integrate their information systems in order to have employees throughout the enterprise to access specific information residing on a LAN somewhere in the enterprise. The devices on the LANs can communicate over the frame relay network regardless of their native protocol. For example, native protocols that can traverse frame relay networks include SNA, DECnet, IPX, TCP/IP, and AppleTalk. Therefore, frame relay has the ability to make the users perceive that the entire company is on one large LAN. Application software such as groupware, e-mail, document sharing, database and many other LAN applications can utilize frame relay technology. Companies are also integrating communication for legacy systems, such as SNA, onto frame relay networks (Thyfault, 1995B). This allows companies to connect devices such as cluster controllers and front-end processors directly to FRADs in order to use the frame relay network for communications. Frame relays ability to support both the legacy applications and LAN applications provides an excellent backbone for those companies that are in the process of migrating their information systems from centralized mainframe processing to distributed client/server systems. Companies can turn up legacy applications on the frame relay network and slowly migrate the LAN applications as they are developed. Conclusion Frame relay is a simplified form of packet-mode switching, optimized for transporting todays protocol-oriented data. The result of this simplification is that frame relay offers higher throughput, while still retaining the bandwidth and equipment efficiencies that come from having multiple virtual circuits share a single port and transmission facility. Thus, the use of frame relay can: Reduce the cost of transmission facilities and equipment Provide increased performance, reliability, and application response time Increase interoperability through well-defined international standards A major reason for the high level of interest in frame relay is that it is a technology that has been developed in response to a clear market need. With the proliferation of powerful end-point devices (such as PCS and workstations) operating with intelligent protocols (such a TCP/IP, XNS and DECnet), users are seeking WAN communication methods that offer higher throughput and more cost-effective use of digital transmission lines. With that need in mind, frame relay has been developed and standardized to have precisely the combination of characteristics needed by todays corporate networks. Coupled with the NetWare MultiProtocol Router, frame relay provides customers a flexible, highly manageable solution at a reasonable cost. Frame relay is just one of many WAN alternatives available. Given the right planning, it will provide users with efficient high-bandwidth connectivity now and into the future. Endnotes

Evaluation of Strategic Marketing Models in Fashion Industry Essay

Introduction Fashion essentially involves change, defined as a succession of short term trends or fad and the very nature of fashion, where change is intrinsic, gives different emphasis to marketing activities (Eeasey, 1994). Furthermore, process research, according to Pettigrew (1992), in strategic management is paradigmatically diverse and empirically complex. Therefore, analysis of process model of strategy specific attention should be paid in fashion industry. Since it is significant without any doubt for a fashion company to choose the proper model to complement marketing strategy, evaluation of strategy process model could be essential. This essay attempts to evaluate Johnson & Scholes’ traditional model and Hill & Jones’ model in fashion industry by analysing and comparing these two models via a few cases of fashion companies. By virtue of making a case study of a listed company, Metersbonwe Group, analyzing its strategy it could have an evaluation of Johnson & Scholesâ€℠¢ traditional model while the â€Å"Bravo† of Burberry would illustrate advantages of Hill & Jones’ model despite of certain limitations. Evaluation of Strategic Marketing Models in Fashion Industry Overview of Models ââ€" Exploring Corporate Strategy model (Johnson and Scholes, 1999) The exhibit above indicates the three main processes in a linear sequence: understanding the strategic position; strategic choice; turning strategy into action (Johnson and Scholes, 1999). Johnson and Scholes (1999) pointed that each process is supposed to be regarded as closely associated, and none has priority over another process realistically for these three processes are interrelated and interconnected  in circles. In Exploring Corporate Strategy model, according to the Johnson and Scholes (1999), strategic position means that strategic analysis and understanding of the impact on strategy of the external environment, an organisation’s capability (resources and  competences) and the expectations and influence of stakeholders, which lays the foundation of the future strategies. In the strategy creation and choice part, there are several strategic options available for manager making a reasonable decision to choose congruent methods. Next, the strategy implementation involves the ensuring that chosen strategies are actually put into action. ââ€" Strategic Planning Process model (Hill and Jones, 2004) Evaluation of Strategic Marketing Models in Fashion Industry The figure shows that there are five major processes of the Hill and Jones’ model: selecting the corporate mission and goals; analyzing the organization’s external competitive environment to identify opportunities and threats; analyzing the organization’s internal operating environment to identify the organization’s strengths and weaknesses; Selecting strategies that build on the organization’s strengths and correct its weaknesses in order to take advantage of external opportunities and counter external threats, which should be consistent with the mission and major goals of the organization; implementing the strategies (Hill and Jones, 2004). Analysis of Comparison and Evaluation From the description of the processes of two models, it could be found that there is a difference in process between Johnson and Scholes’ model and Hill and Jones’ model. In this part, evaluation would be concluded by case analysis. In Johnson and Scholes’ model, they prefer to analyses the impact on strategy of the external environment, external elements (resources and competences) and the expectations and influence of stakeholders before  choosing a congruent strategy between several options. Take Metersbonwe Group as an example, the company, which was created by President and Founder, Zhou Chenjian in Wenzhou, Zhejiang, in 1995, is a listed company specialized in casual wear apparel designing, manufacturing and retailing,  playing its role as a leading casualwear apparel company (Shiwei and Hengjing, 2011). It had achieved great success in past several years. To extend their business, Metersbonwe had a new strategy to imitate the fashion model, which was i nitiated by Zara. In the market process, the company made an analysis of it internal and external environment. However, they had an imprecise market prediction of fashion trend, which made the company’s sales not as expected thus increasing company’s inventory in the dynamic market. According to China Scope Financial (2011), as of September 30, 2011, Metersbonwe’s inventory value was CNY 2.98 billion, 83% of its net asset and although Metersbonwe’s cash flow in the third quarter of 2011 became positive for the first time since the third quarter of 2010, the growth of its income and profit has slowed down. One of the main characters of Zara’s fast fashion model is that in the rapid supply chain maintaining low inventories of this model is the basis for profit (Maolijief, 2012). On contrary, the Metersbonwe had committed a fatal error in their process of strategy choice, declining inventory rate and slowing operation time many times. In fashion industry, high inventory each retention day means devaluation (Maolijief, 2012). In addition, on account of the management of the Metersbonwe, the positioning issues were all important for Metersbonwe when it is confronted with the high inventory crisis and decline of their brand image. The external environment offered the threat and ever-growing competition from other brand such as Semir. Its strong Apparel brand and existing consumer group were key advantages for  defending its position. In the dynamic market, especially in the fashion market, which is undergoing a myriad of changes in the twinkling of an eye,  if the company made an inappropriate strategic option and could not change to cope with the unpredictable situation in their process of strategy, they would turn from a success into a failure while proces s of strategy planning is essential. In contrast, in Hill and Jones’ model, analysis of organization’s external competitive environment and the organization’s internal operating environment are followed by a clear mission. The UK fashion brand Burberry will suffice to illustrate this point. Burberry started a new strategy after appointing Rosie Marie Bravo in 1997 as chief executive, which has made Burberry from boom. In the new strategy, Rosie Marie Bravo (CEO) set a mission to reposition the Burberry’s brand by selecting the corporate mission and goals, which could be regarded as the first step of Hill and Jones’ model. Burberry’s goals were to rebuilt Burberry brand image, to keep the traditional consumer base as well as attract a new, more fashion forward client base by regaining control over distribution and taking back the power over design and product development. In the process of analyzing the company’s external competitive environment, Burberry made a decision of opening a flagship store on New Bond Street in London, competing with stores such as Gucci, Versace, Prada and Chanel by placing itself on the level of these luxury fashion brands. Besides, Burberry’s fashion shows in Milan, as other luxury fashion brands usually do, was a congruent approach to draw the fashion media’s attention and to enjoy media  coverage, thus empower itself highly competitive in international fashion market. The next process after selecting the mission was analyzing the internal situation such as their narrow scope of customers and lacking of controlling design and product distribution, then Burberry made a strategy to establish six new brand levels under his direction and incorporated several alternative fashion directions previously ignored thus leading Burberry to attract majority of the potential consumers. With these new brands extending their range varying from traditional menswear to womenswear, children’s apparel, and accessories, Burberry could cope with their weaknesses of narrow scope of customers to achieve their mission. In  addition, Burberry made a plan to renegotiate with these foreign companies that the licenses previously endorsed. In this way, Burberry enabled itself to overcome company’s internal design and distribution disadvantages. In the fourth steps, Burberry took a new strategy in three aspects, according to the company’s mission and analysis of both internal and external situation to turnaround Burberry: plenty of approaches to marketing and rebranding; controlling product design and manufacture; changing distribution policy. After the implementation of the new strategy, Burberry achieved considerable improvement in its financial performance, showing a profit increase of 630 per cent between the years of 2000 and 2003 and constructing itself as a fashion luxury brand. The Burberry case demonstrates the characters and significance of every process in Hill and Jones’ model. Although, Hill and Jones’ model has its limitations as well as merits, just as Katja Kanngiesser (2004) pointed out that traditional strategy process paid much attention on analysis, reason and period of stability and presume that based on their analysis they could make reliable future prediction. Hill and Jones (2004) admitted that valuable strategies often emerge from deep within the organization without previous planning. Furthermore, other researchers hold the opinion that the real world is unpredictable and they doubt the role that lower-level managers could play in the management process (Gavetti, Levinthal, and Rivkin) Conclusion This essay presents two generalizable model of firm strategy in the fashion market and illustrates model with two cases. From the analysis of two kinds of strategy process model in company cases, it could be concluded that Hill and Jones’ model has an advantage over Johnson and Scholes’ model by virtue of analysing of Metersbonwe and Burberry while Johnson and Scholes’ model and Hill and Jones’ model have many similarities in the process of strategy model. Both Johnson and Scholes’ model and Hill and Jones’ model have its limitations as well as merits. Bibliography Andrew, M. Pettigrew. (1992), The Character and Significance of Strategy Process Research. Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 13, Special Issue: Fundamental Themes in Strategy Process Research (Winter, 1992), pp.5-16 Christopher M. Moore, Birtwistle G. (2004), The Burberry business model: creating an international luxury fashion brand, International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, Vol. 32 Issue: 8 pp. 412 – 422 Emerald Group Publishing Limited. (2005),†Bravo† for Burberry: From bust to boom – creating a luxury fashion brand, Strategic Direction, Vol. 21 Issue: 1 pp. 22 – 24 Eeasey, M. (2009) Fashion Marketing, Oxford: Wiley Blackwell G. Gavetti, D. Levinthal, and J. W. Rivkin. (2005), Strategy Making in Novel and Complex Worlds: The Power of Analogy, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 26: pp.691–712. Hill, C. & Jones, G. (2004) Strategic Management Theory, New York: Houghton Mifflin. Johnson G. & Scholes K. (1999) Exploring Corporate Strategy, Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall. Kanngiesser, K (2006) The Strategy Process in Dynamic Markets. Diploma Thesis, European Business School Evaluation of Strategic Marketing Models in Fashion Industry Shiwei X, Hengjing L. (2011), Constructing core competencies of virtual enterprise with information technology a case study of Metersbonwe Fashion & Accessories Co., Ltd. Business Management and Electronic Information (BMEI), 2011 International Conference on 13-15 May 2011, Vol. 1: pp.456–459. China Scope Financial, (2011). Metersbonwe Faces High Inventory Pressure. [online] Available at: http://www.chinascopefinancial.com/news/post/1736.html [Accessed 27 December 2011]. Maolijief, (2012). Metersbonwe brand clothing high inventory problem analysis. [online] Available at: http://mens-clothes-online.tm96.net/20120724/metersbonwe-brand-clothin g-high-inventory-problem-analysis-2.html [Accessed 24 July 2011].

Challenges of Teachers in Decision Making Essay

1.1 STATEMENT OF PURPOSE The purpose of this study is to investigate the extent to which teachers participate in Decision-making at Government Secondary school Omala, Omala L.G.A. argues that purposeful planning depends on effective decision-making. Teachers and educational managers make decisions on a daily basis. These decisions may influence pupils, teachers and the future of the school. Dawn of new Education system has seen a proliferation of Educational policy and legislation specifying and advocating full participation by stakeholders in the governance and management of schools. The education policy documents continuously refer to the democratisation of schools and the education system as a whole. The documents that have made this call, include the National Education Policy Investigation Report, A policy framework for education and training, the White Paper on Education and Training which all culminated in Kogi State Schools that is currently the driving force behind the operation of all schools in Kogi State. The report of task Team on Education Management Development suggested that, in line with similar trends in several other States, has placed Kogi State schools firmly on the road to a school based system of management where schools will increasingly come to manage themselves. The report suggests further that effective self-management must be accompanied by an internal devolution of power within the school and greater participation of all decision-making processes. The work on self-managing schools is strongly influencing later developments that devolution of power to school must be m atched by an empowerment of people within the school. In this research, it has been suggested that the notion of participative approaches, which has become enriched in the â€Å"folklore† of education management, is the most appropriate way to run schools, it has become closely associated with school effectiveness and improvement. 1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM It is important to look closely at the Secondary school education system with the view of determining how decisions are taken at school. Prior to the introduction of Teachers participation in decision making, teachers did not have a say in decisions that affected them in their daily lives. The problem which is the main focus in this research is to determine to what extent the teachers participate in decision-making in secondary schools at Government Secondary School Omala, Omala Local government Area of Kogi State, in order to ensure their satisfaction as well as the achievement of the schools’ goals. 1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY âž ¢ To determine what is the current situation regarding participative decision-making at Government Secondary School Omala, Omala Local government Area of Kogi State. âž ¢ To determine what effect the implementation of current participative decision-making has on secondary schools at Government Secondary School Omala,OmalaLocal government Area of Kogi State âž ¢ To determine how participative decision-making affects teachers’ morale. âž ¢ To determine what changes are desirable to teachers in the management approach. 1.4 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY This study is a focused case study of teacher participation in decision-making at Government Secondary School Omala, Omala Local government Area of Kogi State. 1.5 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS 1.5.1 Decision – making: Decision-making can be seen as the process of consciously choosing the most suitable way of action to solve or handle a particular problem after various alternatives have been considered to achieve the set goals or objectives. 1.5.2 School Management Team: Is a group of teachers who are involved in the task of leading and managing schools Example; Head of Department (HOD), deputy principal and principal. CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION The Decision-making is a continual management function which plays an important part in the management process and which is vital to all the cyclical management functions. Some scholars like Kruger and Van (1996:19) argue that when the principal allows teachers to participate in certain aspects of the management of the school, she/he gives an opportunity to teachers to experience responsibility. By so doing, the principal does not relinquish his/her authority but his/her authority is enhanced. Pretorius (2010) believes that clinical leadership increases a position relationship between principals and teachers. Therefore, teachers become committed to teaching, because they are participating in decisions that affect them. According to Professor Aturata (2008), in the light of trend towards the decentralized school Management in Kogi State, research indicates that teachers need to be empowered to participate fully in decision-making. Also argues that the concept of educator empowerment in decision-making needs to be closely studied in terms of its effect on educator participation in decision-making at school.Professor Soyinka : states that an effective schooling can only occur when both the principal and teachers are involved in the decision-making process. Non-involvement of teachers in decision-making may result in conflict, as there is no consultation between principal and educators on policy matters and operational procedures at school. However probable only one way to democratize schools. To practice democracy means learning to be responsible for freedom, to make long term strategic decisions and most importantly, to accept the fact that democracy is possible when all participants in the educational process share it. Sule Maitama et al. (2009) cite the following from the educational system, â€Å"The government’s effective educational programmes depend on a process of consultation and negotiation among those vitally affected†. So the policies adopted will reflect their values and goals, thus increasing the prospect of wholehearted support. 2.2 DECISION-MAKING Decision-making has never been easy and it is especially challenging for the educational managers of today. The Decisions can be made by the Principal as an individual or in a group where the entire staff or a select group of staff members will be present. The two contexts of decision-making differ significantly. Educational managers should evaluate the nature of the problems and decisions to be made and then decide if participative or group decision-making is called for. Decision-making can be seen as a process of consciously. Choosing the most suitable way of action to solve or handle a particular problem after various alternatives have been considered to achieve the set goals and objectives. This implies that decision-making must be converted into action. The decision-making process involves a series of complex interactions of events. These interactions constitute the following stages, namely: (i) Study the existing situation carefully. (ii) Recognize and define the problem. (iii) Examine the detailed make-up of the problem in the existing situation. (iv) Decide on the criteria for resolving the problem. (v) Develop a plan for action. (vi) Initiate the plan of action. 2.3 MODELS FOR DECISION-MAKING 2.3.1 The classical model: The classical decision theory assumes that decisions should be completely rational. This model employs an optimsing strategy by seeking the best possible alternative to maximize the achievement of goals and objectives. According to the classical model, the decision-making process is a series of sequential steps as follows: (i) A problem is identified. (ii) Goals and objectives are established. (iii) All the possible alternatives are generated. (iv) The consequences of each alternative are considered. (v) All the alternatives are evaluated in terms of the goals and objectives. (vi) The best alternative is selected, that is, the one that maximizes the goals and Objectives. (vii) Finally, the decision is implemented and evaluated. 2.3.2 The administrative model Hoy and Miskel (2006:317) say that this is the strategy of satisficing in an attempt to provide a more accurate description of the way administrators both do and should make organisational decisions. This model rests upon the basic assumption that: The decision-making Process is a cycle of events that includes identification and diagnosis of a difficulty, the reflective development of a plan to alleviate the difficulty, the initiation of the plan, and the appraisal of its success.† This model relies on both experience and theory to guide decision-making. 2.4 PARTICIPATIVE APPROACH TO DECISION-MAKING AT SCHOOL Since participative management has become popular, an increasing number of decisions have been made by groups rather than individuals. In the group decision-making process, decisions are the product of interpersonal decision-making processes and group dynamics. According to Merry Parker people who have been allowed a voice in decisions that affect them are more likely to be accepted and adhere to the decisions and quality of a decision refers to the extent to which the decision is ultimately successful in meeting the goals and objectives of the decision makers. 2.4.1 Collegial model of management:The collegial model includes all those theories which emphasise that power and decision-making should be shared among some or all members of the organization. These approaches range from a restricted collegiality where the leader shares power with a limited number of senior colleagues to a pure collegiality where all members have an equal voice in determining policy. Collegial models assume that Organizations determine policy and make decisions through a process of discussion leading to consensus. Power is shared among some or all members of the organization who are thought to have a mutual understanding about the objectives of the schools. 2.4.2 Application of collegiality in a secondary school situation: The introduction of the collegial model in secondary schools has been slower than in higher education. The tradition of all powerful heads with authority over staff and accountable to external bodies has stifled several attempts to develop participative models on management. The formal position is that heads alone are responsible for the organization and management of schools. This consideration has acted as a brake on some heads that wish to share their power and as a convenient justification for those reluctant to share power. In large schools, there is a need for sub-units like committees in order for staff to have formal representation on decision-making bodies, and there is the assumption that staff has formal representation on such bodies. Research was conducted by different researchers at different schools in Kogi state, where the principal was committed in collegiality and introduced several participative elem ents, Several collegial features were found in the school. Staff had ample formal representation within the decision-making structure and decisions were usually reached by consensus. Despite his good intentions, the principal recognized that the school was not collegial. 2.4.3 Advantages of collegiality There are three main advantages of collegiality: †¢ The evidence that teachers wish to participate more fully in the management of their schools. T †¢ The quality of decision-making is likely to be better when staff participates in the process as it increases the experience and expertise brought in to solve the problem. †¢ Staff participation is important as it usually has the responsibility of implementing any changes. Collegiality does not require confrontation or conforming behaviours, but allows for open discussion and consensus. It employs personal power, not positional power. Positional power is temporally set aside, since the group member communicates and co-operates in the spirit of caring for one another and the vision of the organization. It changes interaction from those that arouse distrust and disrespect to those that are based on mutual trust, support and feeling of personal worth. With collaboration, people do not try to defeat one another and the organisation, but work with colleagues towards success. 2.4.4 Limitations of collegiality: The main limitations of collegiality are: †¢ It is so normative, it hides reality. †¢ Decision-making is slow and cumbersome. Meetings are often lengthy with issues often ending unresolved. Time and patience needs to be invested, and this is usually after hours when staff is tired as noted †¢ There is no guarantee of unanimity of outcomes after participation and debate. It is unrealistic to assume that consensus can be reached as the model undermines the significance of conflict. †¢ Tension that exists between different styles of management, as positional authority often surpasses the authority of expertise in reality. †¢ The accountability of leaders to external bodies or councils often leads to conflict as it is difficult to defend policies that have emerged but do not enjoy the support of the leader, and difficult to establish who is responsible for policy. There is also the possibility of conflict between internal and external bodies. †¢ Staff participation needs to be an adequate level for collegiality to be effective. When staff attitudes are not supportive, it will fail. .†¢ The heads play a vital role and collegiality depends ultimately on them. If they so choose, they can limit the scope of collegiality as diminishing their power, and perhaps ultimately their identity). The quality of management depends on personal and professional qualities of those that lead and manage . 2.4.5 Collegial relationship The building of effective teams is a major responsibility of the other senior staff. Effective teams are necessary for the continued growth, development and day-to-day management of an organization. The School Management Team (SMT) should create the environment where people feel they want to give extra discretionary effort. The school needs to develop a sense of identity. The sense of direction, belonging and identity are central to every team and participants enter a group with many highly developed perspectives and talents. Through collegiality, the team learns how to respect, appreciate and foster the individual identities of group members. Building a collegial group composed of diverse talents and perspectives which require a special sensitivity to each person feel like a value and appreciated contributor. The group should develop a sense of mutual and share responsibility. Team members cannot work towards a desired outcome until they have formed a sense of team spirit and learne d to trust and support one another .The trust is the foundation upon which school effectiveness is built. An effective work culture cannot develop unless trust exists within the organization. Trust allows a rich culture to develop, and allows individuals to achieve their full potential. Trust develops as people expose themselves, share and take risks together. Trust tends to reduce fear of dependency on others and eliminates the potentially negative effects of conflicts. The trust is also fundamental cement that bonds an organization together, facilitating good communication rectifying badly timed actions, making goal attainment possible and creating the conditions for organizational success. Effective collegial relations develop within the organization only when all levels within an organization have opportunities to come together at the beginning of the project. The principal is expected to ensure that a collegial relation prevails within the school. 2.4.6 Collaboration power sharing: According to Dludla (2001: 27), collaborative power arises as staff members learn to make most of their collective capacity to run the day-to-day affairs of their school and solve problems. If teachers are involved in the running of the school, they are challenged in a number of ways, such as learning new ways of doing things and even values and attitudes. Lack of involvement results in fear and uncertainty which induce reluctance to change even if the fruits of change may be somehow desired. Collaborative power is of utmost significance if the school must succeed. He further comments that this form of power is unlimited because it enhances the productivity of the school on behalf of the students. His other view is that whereas top-down leadership may have a role in managing a school, a principal as collaborative leader has to find the right balance between the top-down and bottom-up so that the school meets it challenges. But participation and power sharing does not mean that a scho ol needs to get together every time a decision is made. The main objective in participative decision-making is to reach consensus. Staff needs to be educated in the consensus-based management process. This education will corporate an understanding that each individual cannot unilaterally determine the solution to decisions but can contribute to consensus being reached. It would also need to develop an understanding that shared participation leads to shared responsibility. Principals need to know that the principal who shares power with teachers is still a leader. This principal is a more effective instructional leader because empowered teachers are more likely to maximize their potential. 2.4.7 Teacher empowerment: Good relations are essential for effective change and it is important that relations with teachers, who have the responsibility to implement these changes, Teachers need to have a sense of empowerment and need to be encouraged to participate in the changes. Empowering involves releasing the potential of individuals, allowing them to flourish and grow, to release their capacity for infinite improvement and teacher as a critical factor in student education. The conviction is that developing teachers as classroom instructors and giving them a greater voice in the decisions that affect the school will make teaching more effective. Teachers are empowered in a number of ways, one of which is staff development. Needless to say, for teachers to be successful educators during transformation, they need to undergo some kind of development and training. 2.4.8 Open information system The effectiveness of communication between group and individuals is crucial in this regard and claims that under present day conditions, information has to be shared much more widely. In the context of the school, changes with regard to National and State policy documents, the school procedures, role and resource allocation are all aspects of change that need to be communicated to the necessary constituencies. This may be done through regular meetings, workshops, and rotation of policy documents to members of staff. These are important procedures to enhance open communication system where people can express their feelings freely. By working together in this way, the principles of transparency, accountability and trust are promoted. In collegial group, flexible patterns of communication are used so that all members feel free to participate equally and at will. Minority opinions are encouraged and understood. Individuals know and understand one another, and are sensitive to each other’s ideas and reactions. There is a level of trust and mutual respect that results in members dealing candidly with one another without fear of harmful effects. Resistance to change flourishes where there is poor communication, little or no active participation and involvement in decisions and where tensions are allowed to simmer unchecked. To overcome such resistance, it is necessary that there be open lines of communication participation and involvement of all stakeholders, an atmosphere of facilitation, support, negotiation and agreement. 2.5 WHO SHOULD PARTICIPATE IN DECISION-MAKING AT SCHOOL? According to Van der Bank (2007:150), participative decision-making does not mean that all staff members must participate in all decisions. There are two criteria, which could be used to determine which staff members should participate in which decisions. The first of these criteria is ‘relevancy’ and the second has to do with ‘expertise’. ‘Relevancy’-refers to the interest a specific person has concerning the problem and the subsequent decision. ‘Expertise’-refers to the extent to which participants to decision-making are qualified by means of training and experience. 2.6 STEPS FOR EFFECTIVE PARTICIPATIVE DECISION-MAKING There are nine steps in an effective participative decision-making process which comprised the following: (i) Identify the problem (ii) Clarify the problem (iii) Analyze the cause (iv) Search for alternative solutions (v) Select alternatives (vi) Plan for implementation (vii) Clarify the contract (viii) Develop an action plan (ix) Provide evaluation and accountability 2.7 THEORY ON PARTICIPATIVE DECISION-MAKING According to Nzimande (2001:06), the assumption that individuals have expectations about outcomes that may manifest as a result of what they do, underlies the expectancy theory. This means that individuals are regarded as thinking and reasoning beings that are to participate in future events, so as the teachers at school. This is the anticipation of the greater performance and the greater outcome. This is the strength of an individual’s preference for an outcome. If teachers are motivated through rewards, they may be good participators in decision-making at school. The guidelines on participative decision-making at schools are: †¢ .Participation is more appropriate when the principal does not possess enough information to solve a problem. †¢ Participation of teachers is more appropriate when the nature and dimensions of the problems are not clear. †¢ Participation is more appropriate when decisions are important and relevant to teacher. 2.8 ADVANTAGES OF PARTICIPATIVE DECISION-MAKING AT SCHOOL †¢ Groups provide a larger sum of knowledge than would be accessible to individual members, thus leading to informed decisions. †¢ Participation in decision-making increases the acceptance of decisions, which improves the motivation to implement the decision. †¢ Groups are willing to take greater risks than individuals, which leads to aggressive solutions to problems. 2.9 BENEFITS OF PARTICIPATIVE DECISION-MAKING AT SCHOOL This research has indicated that participative decision-making results in a number of benefits for example: †¢ Increased decision quality †¢ Decision creativity †¢ Decision acceptance †¢ Decision understanding †¢ Decision judgment †¢ Participation results in teacher satisfaction with the profession of teaching. †¢ Teachers prefer principals who involve them in decisions-making. †¢ Teachers neither nor want to be involved in every decision-making; in fact too much involvement can be as detrimental as too little . 2.10 POSSIBLE CONSEQUENCES IF TEACHERS DO NOT PARTICIPATE IN DECISION-MAKING AT SCHOOL There are some problems that teachers face when they not involved in decision-making at school, namely: †¢ Behavior changes †¢ Psychological withdrawal †¢ Influence on mental health for example stress, burnout, etc. CHAPTER THREE: 3.0 EARLIER METHOD OF DECISION MAKING IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS In the olden days, it was deemed necessary to instruct the conquered people in the doctrines of the Homes, and transform them into loyal subjects. They began re-educating the native adults and providing instruction to the children and youth, indoctrinating and educating them in the rudiments of social life to use them to benefit the School. One piece of information that is never controversial in educational discourse is the pattern of initial recruitment into schools in Nigeria. Several studies: Wise (1956); Ikejiani, Hansen, Okeke & Anowi (196†²;), Fafunwa (1979) and Taiwo (1981), for instance, show that in southern Nigerian, often the first pupils in the secondary schools were drawn from groups who were to some extent marginal or subordinate within the traditional status hierarchies. In Northern Nigeria, however there were numerous cases according to Hisket (1975) and Ibrahim (1979) where member of the traditional elite’s were the first to be recruited. The initial scho ols in northern Nigeria for instance were â€Å"Native administration† in the sense that they were supported from local kinds and were very much the concern of the ‘Native Authority’ â€Å"Indeed in northern Nigeria the emirs being the heads of the Native Authori ty bui l t these schools† (Wise 1956, p. 43) Ibrahim (1979) asser ts that in Kano State, the f ragmentary data that exist suggest that the students in governments schools at the initial period of western education in 1903 were disproportionately drawn from high socio-political elite’s of Kano citizens. Even within the immerse growth in educational opportunities that has occurred, it can be observed that the low socio-economic status people in northern Nigeria are still largely under represented within the upper reaches of northern educational system and attempts to increase proportional representation of lower status grouping conceived in terms of traditional criteria of status have been only moderately successful. In gross terms, it is possible to point to variant patterns of response to the introduction of secondary education in the country. Unlike in southern Nigeria, where the most usual result of the introduction of secondary education is a process of status reserved, in northern Nigeria, the process of status reinforcement is assumed to ensure a guaranteed degree of continuity in the recruitment of dominant groups. Of course, concepts derived in terms of this may do injustice to empirical realities since in practice the emergent pattern of social differentiation in the less developed world represents a complex inter-weaving between traditional and emergent concepts of status. This theory may seven further be argued to be largely an academic exercise as the emergence of a modern type of urban centre has largely eroded the traditional criteria of status and authority in Africa. Influence of Commissions and Educational Laws on Secondar y Education The early, schools functioned with scarcely any involvement by the colonial government and as such there were no reasonable attempts to co-ordinate education system organized by the various missions. In this regard, there was no novelty as such in educational practice, all missions owned common allegiance to Christianity and they operated curriculum centered on English, Religion, and Arithmetic commonly called 3Rs. This system however changed in early 1880s particularly by the Education Ordinance of 1882 when colonial government assumed a measure of control of mission education. Significant improvement was made when the Ordinance No. 3 of 1887 was enacted to consolidate and amend the laws relating to the promotion of education in the colony of Lagos. Concerning secondary education, in 1879 there were three secondary schools namely the CMS Grammar school, built in 1859. Wesleyan Boys High School built in 1976 and St. Gregory’s School 1879. The trend of the secondar y school from 1897 to 1992 was a gradual increase in enrolment from 172 to 206. With the amalgamation of Southern and Northern Protectorates. Lord Lugard proposed three types of secondary education with the aim of adapting the needs of education of the children in both protectorates to the man-power needs. The schools are the provincial schools, the rural and the non-government schools. The provinces, and located three to four kilometers away from the residential areas under a British Headmaster. The Resident and the paramount chiefs in the areas where these schools were located were to assist in the supervision of the schools. The entrants were between 12-14 years of age. The rural school were meant for rural children who ultimately would remain in rural environments The rural school policy was not accepted particularly by people in the Southern provinces and a grammar school â€Å"policy was not accepted particularly by people in the Southern provinces and a grammar school policy was favored initially in the main urban areas. CHAPTER FOUR: 4.0 DATA ANALYSIS INTRODUCTION The purpose of this study is to investigate through the perceptions of staff, the extent to which teachers participate in decision-making at Government secondary schools Omala, and as necessary, to make practical recommendations as to whom in the management arrangements of the secondary schools may be modified or enhanced to promote teacher participation in decision-making more effectively. 4.1 Data analysis entails bringing order, structure and meaning to the mass of time consuming, creative and fascinating process. Analysis of data about individual interviews was done through identifying common themes from the respondents’ description of their experiences. Irrelevant information was separated from the relevant information in the interviews. The relevant information was broken into phrases or sentences, which reflect a single, specific thought. The phrases or sentences were further be grouped into categories that reflect various aspects of meanings. The various meanings identified will be used to develop description as seen by the respondents. 4.2 Analysis of quantitative information: The researcher used descriptive statistics to analyse quantitative data. Descriptive statistics is a mathematical technique for organizing, summarising and displaying a set of numerical data. 5.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. This Research serves as a mechanism to identify and evaluate management practices that are consistent with the current call for a participative mode of education management and governance. The research questions form the essentials and the value of this study. The structure of the research provides the reader with what to expect in the ensuing assignment. This research has reviewed about participative management and the transformation role of the principal. The approach described requires an involvement and commitment from staff in order to bring about effective change. Also suggests that a collegial model is difficult to implement even when staff is committed to it. The school management functions remain dominantly in the hands of the principals and School Management Team (SMT). The extent of teacher involvement in management of the school is limited to the classroom. Principals do not motivate staff to be united. Team -work in schools is regarded as poor. Involving teachers in decision- making allows staff and management to work as a team. When teachers are involved in decision-making, they tend to own decisions, by ensuring the implementation of those decisions. A staff perception to the way in which participative management operates currently at Government secondary schools Omola is that teachers are not adequately involved in decision-making in schools. Teachers in this study accept the responsibility of becoming the role players in managerial decision-making. CONCLUSIVELY, The principal should promote an atmosphere of trust by displaying fair treatment and proper management skills to the teachers. It is important for the principal to model attitude behaviour on the principles of democracy. Fair treatment of teachers is a prerequisite for building an atmosphere of trust and accountability. In the climate of transformation, it becomes imperative for a principal to display proper management skills so that his/her credibility as a leader is not brought into disrepute. Recommendations to teachers: †¢ Teachers should take positive steps to become partners in managing their schools Teachers must not be complacent, but be active participants in terms of self – education and managing school affairs beyond the boundaries of the classroom. However, it becomes necessary for teachers to respect the positional power of the principal, which grants him / her authority to make certain decisions unilaterally. This requires involvement and commitment from staff in order to bring about effective change. Assess the principals’ understanding of their role REFERENCES âž ¢ Kogi Education Congress 1994. A Policy Framework for Education and Training Education desk.Omala Town:Omala L.G.A. in promoting teacher participation in decision-making within these schools. âž ¢ Adeyinka, A.A. (1971): The development of grammar school education in the Westernstates of Nigeria 1908 – 1968. Unpublished M.Ed. Dissertation Submitted toUniversity of Ibadan. Ibadan âž ¢ Fafunwa, A. B. (1974): History of education in Nigeria. London. George Allen And Unwin Ltd. Federal Republic of Nigeria (1981). National Policy on Education. Lagos: NERC. âž ¢ Ibrahim, Y.Y. (1979): Oral and socialization process: A socio-folkloric Perspective of initiation from childhood to adulthood Hausa Community. Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis submitted to Bayero University Kano. âž ¢ Ikojani, O. (Ed ): Nigerian education. Bristol; Western Printing Ltd. Taiwo. C.O. (1981): The Nigerian education system. Past Present and Future: France and London: Buller tanner Ltd. âž ¢ Wise, C.W (1956): History of education in British West Africa. Toronto: Longman Green & Co.